Nanoparticles for protein drug delivery

ABSTRACT

The invention discloses the nanoparticles composed of chitosan, poly-glutamic acid, and at least one protein drug or bioactive agent characterized with a positive surface charge and their enhanced permeability for paracellular protein drug and bioactive agent delivery.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation-in-part application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/151,230, filed May 5, 2008, now U.S. Pat No. 7,541,046, which is a continuation-in-part application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/398,145, filed Apr. 5, 2006, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,381,716, which is a continuation-in-part application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/284,734, filed Nov. 21, 2005, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,282,194, which is a continuation-in-part application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/029,082, filed Jan. 4, 2005, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,265,090, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention is related to medical uses of nanoparticles having a pharmaceutical composition of chitosan and polyglutamic acid with bioactive agents and their enhanced permeability for paracellular delivery.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Production of pharmaceutically active peptides and proteins in large quantities has become feasible (Biomacromolecules 2004; 5:1917-1925). The oral route is considered the most convenient way of drug administrations for patients. Nevertheless, the intestinal epithelium is a major barrier to the absorption of hydrophilic drugs such as peptides and proteins (J. Control. Release 1996; 39:131-138). This is because hydrophilic drugs cannot easily diffuse across the cells through the lipid-bilayer cell membranes. Attentions have been given to improving paracellular transport of hydrophilic drugs (J. Control. Release 1998; 51:35-46). The transport of hydrophilic molecules via the paracellular pathway is, however, severely restricted by the presence of tight junctions that are located at the luminal aspect of adjacent epithelial cells (Annu. Rev. Nutr. 1995; 15:35-55). These tight junctions form a barrier that limits the paracellular diffusion of hydrophilic molecules. The structure and function of tight junctions is described, inter alia, in Ann. Rev. Physiol. 1998; 60:121-160 and in Ballard T S et al., Annu. Rev. Nutr. 1995; 15:35-55. Tight junctions do not form a rigid barrier but play an important role in the diffusion through the intestinal epithelium from lumen to bloodstream and vice versa.

Movement of solutes between cells, through the tight junctions that bind cells together into a layer as with the epithelial cells of the gastrointestinal tract, is termed paracellular transport. Paracellular transport is passive. Paracellular transport depends on electrochemical gradients generated by transcellular transport and on solvent drag through tight junctions. Tight junctions form an intercellular barrier that separates the apical and basolateral fluid compartments of a cell layer. Movement of a solute through a tight junction from apical to basolateral compartments depends on the “tightness” of the tight junction for that solute.

Polymeric nanoparticles have been widely investigated as carriers for drug delivery (Biomaterials 2002; 23:3193-3201). Much attention has been given to the nanoparticles made of synthetic biodegradable polymers such as poly-ε-caprolactone and polylactide due to their good biocompatibility (J. Drug Delivery 2000; 7:215-232; Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm. 1995; 41:19-25). However, these nanoparticles are not ideal carriers for hydrophilic drugs because of their hydrophobic property. Some aspects of the invention relate to a novel nanoparticle system, composed of hydrophilic chitosan and poly(glutamic acid) hydrogels that is prepared by a simple ionic-gelation method. This technique is promising as the nanoparticles are prepared under mild conditions without using harmful solvents. It is known that organic solvents may cause degradation of peptide or protein drugs that are unstable and sensitive to their environments (J. Control. Release 2001; 73:279-291).

Following the oral drug delivery route, protein drugs are readily degraded by the low pH of gastric medium in the stomach. The absorption of protein drugs following oral administration is challenging due to their high molecular weight, hydrophilicity, and susceptibility to enzymatic inactivation. Protein drugs at the intestinal epithelium could not partition into the hydrophobic membrane and thus can only traverse the epithelial barrier via the paracellular pathway. However, the tight junction forms a barrier that limits the paracellular diffusion of hydrophilic molecules.

Chitosan (CS), a cationic polysaccharide, is generally derived from chitin by alkaline deacetylation (J. Control. Release 2004; 96:285-300). It was reported from literature that CS is non-toxic and soft-tissue compatible (Biomacromolecules 2004; 5:1917-1925; Biomacromolecules 2004; 5:828-833). Additionally, it is known that CS has a special feature of adhering to the mucosal surface and transiently opening the tight junctions between epithelial cells (Pharm. Res. 1994; 11:1358-1361). Most commercially available CSs have a quite large molecular weight (MW) and need to be dissolved in an acetic acid solution at a pH value of approximately 4.0 or lower that is sometimes impractical. However, there are potential applications of CS in which a low MW would be essential. Given a low MW, the polycationic characteristic of CS can be used together with a good solubility at a pH value close to physiological ranges (Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm. 2004; 57:101-105). Loading of peptide or protein drugs at physiological pH ranges would preserve their bioactivity. On this basis, a low-MW CS, obtained by depolymerizing a commercially available CS using cellulase, is disclosed herein to prepare nanoparticles of the present invention.

The γ-PGA, an anionic peptide, is a natural compound produced as capsular substance or as slime by members of the genus Bacillus (Crit. Rev. Biotechnol. 2001; 21:219-232). γ-PGA is unique in that it is composed of naturally occurring L-glutamic acid linked together through amide bonds. It was reported from literature that this naturally occurring γ-PGA is a water-soluble, biodegradable, and non-toxic polymer. A related, but structurally different polymer, [poly(α-glutamic acid), α-PGA] has been used for drug delivery (Adv. Drug Deliver. Rev. 2002; 54:695-713; Cancer Res. 1998; 58:2404-2409). α-PGA is usually synthesized from poly(γ-benzyl-L-glutamate) by removing the benzyl protecting group with the use of hydrogen bromide. Hashida et al. used α-PGA as a polymeric backbone and galactose moiety as a ligand to target hepatocytes (J. Control. Release 1999; 62:253-262). Their in vivo results indicated that the galactosylated α-PGA had a remarkable targeting ability to hepatocytes and degradation of α-PGA was observed in the liver.

Thanou et al. reported chitosan and its derivatives as intestinal absorption enhancers (Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2001; 50:S91-S101). Chitosan, when protonated at an acidic pH, is able to increase the paracellular permeability of peptide drugs across mucosal epithelia. Co-administration of chitosan or trimethyl chitosan chloride with peptide drugs were found to substantially increase the bioavailability of the peptide in animals compared with administrations without the chitosan component.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

It is one object of the present invention to provide a novel nanoparticle system and methods of preparation for paracellular transport drug delivery using a simple and mild ionic-gelation method upon addition of a poly-γ-glutamic acid (γ-PGA) solution into regular molecular weight chitosan solution. In one embodiment, the chitosan employed is N-trimethyl chitosan (TMC). In an alternate embodiment, the chitosan employed is low molecular weight chitosan (low-MW CS). In one embodiment, the molecular weight of a low-MW CS of the present invention is about 80 kDa or less, preferably at about 40 kDa, adapted for adequate solubility at a pH that maintains the bioactivity of protein and peptide drugs. It is stipulated that a chitosan particle with about 30-50 kDa molecular weight is kidney inert. The particle size and the zeta potential value of the prepared nanoparticles are controlled by their constituted compositions. The results obtained by the TEM (transmission electron microscopy) and AFM (atomic force microscopy) examinations showed that the morphology of the prepared nanoparticles was generally spherical or spheroidal in shape.

Evaluation of the prepared nanoparticles in enhancing intestinal paracellular transport was investigated in vitro in Caco-2 cell monolayers. Some aspects of the present invention provide the nanoparticles with CS dominated on the surfaces to effectively reduce the transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) of Caco-2 cell monolayers. The confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) observations confirm that the nanoparticles with CS dominated on the surface are able to open the tight junctions between Caco-2 cells and allows transport of the nanoparticles via the paracellular pathways.

Some aspects of the invention relate to a method of enhancing intestinal or blood brain paracellular transport configured for delivering at least one bioactive agent in a patient comprising administering nanoparticles composed of γ-PGA and chitosan, wherein the step of administering the nanoparticles may be via oral administration or injection into a blood vessel. In one embodiment, the chitosan dominates on a surface of the nanoparticles as shell substrate and the negatively charged γ-PGA as core substrate. In another embodiment, a substantial surface of the nanoparticles is characterized with a positive surface charge. In a further embodiment, the nanoparticles of the present invention comprise at least one positively charged shell substrate and at least one negatively charged core substrate. In one embodiment, all of the negatively charged core substrate conjugates with a portion of the positively charged shell substrate that is in the core portion so to maintain a zero-charge (neutral) core. In one embodiment, at least one bioactive or protein drug is conjugated with the negatively charged core substrate or the zero-charge (neutral) core.

In a further embodiment, the chitosan of the nanoparticles is a low molecular weight chitosan, wherein the low molecular weight chitosan has a molecular weight of about 50 kDa, preferably having a molecular weight of less than about 40 kDa.

In a further embodiment, the nanoparticles have a mean particle size between about 50 and 400 nanometers, preferably between about 100 and 300 nanometers, and most preferably between about 100 and 200 nanometers.

In some embodiments, the nanoparticles are loaded with a therapeutically effective amount of at least one bioactive agent, wherein the bioactive agent is selected from the group consisting of proteins, peptides, nucleosides, nucleotides, antiviral agents, antineoplastic agents, antibiotics, and anti-inflammatory drugs.

Further, the bioactive agent may be selected from the group consisting of calcitonin, cyclosporin, insulin, oxytocin, tyrosine, enkephalin, tyrotropin releasing hormone, follicle stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, vasopressin and vasopressin analogs, catalase, superoxide dismutase, interleukin-II, interferon, colony stimulating factor, tumor necrosis factor and melanocyte-stimulating hormone. In one preferred embodiment, the bioactive agent is an Alzheimer antagonist.

Some aspects of the invention relate to an oral dose of nanoparticles that effectively enhance intestinal or blood brain paracellular transport comprising γ-PGA or α-PGA and low molecular weight chitosan, wherein the chitosan dominates on a surface of the nanoparticles. Some aspects of the invention relate to an oral dose of nanoparticles that effectively enhance intestinal or blood brain paracellular transport comprising a negative component, such as γ-PGA, α-PGA, heparin, or heparan sulfate, in the core and low molecular weight chitosan, wherein the chitosan dominates on a surface of the nanoparticles with positive charges.

In a further embodiment, the nanoparticles comprise at least one bioactive agent, such as insulin, insulin analog, Alzheimer's disease antagonist, Parkison's disease antagonist, or other protein/peptide. The bioactive agent for treating Alzheimer's disease may include memantine hydrochloride (Axura® by Merz Pharmaceuticals), donepezil hydrochloride (Aricept® by Eisai Co. Ltd.), rivastigmine tartrate (Exelon® by Novartis), galantamine hydrochloride (Reminyl® by Johnson & Johnson), and tacrine hydrochloride (Cognex® by Parke Davis). Examples of insulin or insulin analog products include, but not limited to, Humulin® (by Eli Lilly), Humalog® (by Eli Lilly) and Lantus® (by Aventis).

Some aspects of the invention relate to an oral dose of nanoparticles that effectively enhance intestinal or blood brain paracellular transport comprising γ-PGA and low molecular weight chitosan, wherein the nanoparticles are crosslinked with a crosslinking agent or with light, such as ultraviolet irradiation.

Some aspects of the invention provide a dose of nanoparticles characterized by enhancing intestinal or brain blood paracellular transport, each nanoparticle comprising a first component of at least one bioactive agent, a second component of low molecular weight chitosan, and a third component that is negatively charged, wherein the second component dominates on a surface of the nanoparticle. In one embodiment, the third component is γ-PGA, α-PGA, derivatives or salts of PGA, heparin or alginate. In another embodiment, the first component comprises insulin at a concentration range of 0.075 to 0.091 mg/ml, the second component at a concentration range of 0.67 to 0.83 mg/ml, and the third component comprises γ-PGA at a concentration range of 0.150 to 0.184 mg/ml.

Some aspects of the invention provide a dose of nanoparticles characterized by enhancing intestinal or brain blood paracellular transport, each nanoparticle comprising a first component of at least one bioactive agent, a second component of low molecular weight chitosan, and a third component that is negatively charged, wherein the second component dominates on a surface of the nanoparticle, wherein the at least one bioactive agent is an antagonist for Alzheimer's disease or is for treating Alzheimer's disease selected from the group consisting of memantine hydrochloride, donepezil hydrochloride, rivastigmine tartrate, galantamine hydrochloride, and tacrine hydrochloride. In a further embodiment, the at least one bioactive agent is insulin or insulin analog. In still another embodiment, the at least one bioactive agent is selected from the group consisting of proteins, peptides, nucleosides, nucleotides, antiviral agents, antineoplastic agents, antibiotics, and anti-inflammatory drugs.

Some aspects of the invention provide a dose of nanoparticles characterized by enhancing intestinal or brain blood paracellular transport, wherein the nanoparticles are further encapsulated in a capsule or hard-cap capsule. In one embodiment, the nanoparticles are freeze-dried. In one embodiment, the interior surface of the capsule is treated to be lipophilic or hydrophobic. In another embodiment, the exterior surface of the capsule is enteric-coated.

Some aspects of the invention provide a dose of nanoparticles characterized by enhancing intestinal or brain blood paracellular transport, each nanoparticle comprising a first component of at least one bioactive agent, a second component of low molecular weight chitosan, and a third component that is negatively charged, wherein the second component dominates on a surface of the nanoparticle, wherein the second component is crosslinked. In one embodiment, the degree of crosslinking is less than 50%. In another embodiment, the degree of crosslinking is ranged between 1% and 20%.

Some aspects of the invention provide a dose of nanoparticles characterized by enhancing intestinal or brain blood paracellular transport, each nanoparticle comprising a first component of at least one bioactive agent, a second component of low molecular weight chitosan, and a third component that is negatively charged, wherein the second component dominates on a surface of the nanoparticle, wherein the second component is crosslinked with a crosslinking agent selected from the group consisting of genipin, its derivatives, analog, stereoisomers and mixtures thereof. In one embodiment, the crosslinking agent is selected from the group consisting of epoxy compounds, dialdehyde starch, glutaraldehyde, formaldehyde, dimethyl suberimidate, carbodiimides, succinimidyls, diisocyanates, acyl azide, reuterin, ultraviolet irradiation, dehydrothermal treatment, tris(hydroxymethyl)phosphine, ascorbate-copper, glucose-lysine and photo-oxidizers.

Some aspects of the invention provide a dose of nanoparticles characterized by enhancing intestinal or brain blood paracellular transport, wherein the low molecule weight chitosan has a molecular weight of 80 kDa or less. In one embodiment, the low molecule weight chitosan is further grafted with a polymer.

Some aspects of the invention provide a method of enhancing intestinal or brain blood paracellular transport comprising administering a dose of nanoparticles, wherein each nanoparticle comprises a first component of at least one bioactive agent, a second component of low molecular weight chitosan, and a third component that is negatively charged, wherein the second component dominates on a surface of the nanoparticle. In one embodiment, the step of administering the dose of nanoparticles is via oral administration for enhancing intestinal paracellular transport. In another embodiment, the step of administering the dose of nanoparticles is via venous administration or injection to a blood vessel for enhancing brain blood paracellular transport or reducing the blood-brain barrier (BBB).

Some aspects of the invention provide a method of treating diabetes of a patient comprising orally administering insulin containing nanoparticles with a dosage effective amount of the insulin to treat the diabetes, wherein at least a portion of the nanoparticles comprises a positively charged shell substrate and a negatively charged core substrate. In one embodiment, the shell substrate comprises chitosan, chitin, chitosan oligosaccharides, and chitosan derivatives thereof, wherein a substantial portion of a surface of the nanoparticles is characterized with a positive surface charge. In another embodiment, the core substrate is selected from the group consisting of γ-PGA, α-PGA, water-soluble salts of PGA, metal salts of PGA, heparin, heparin analogs, low molecular weight heparin, glycosaminoglycans, and alginate. The molecular formula of the insulin is selected from the group consisting of C₂₅₄H₃₇₇N₆₅O₇₅S₆. C₂₅₇H₃₈₃N₆₅O₇₇S₆, C₂₅₆H₃₈₁N₆₅O₇₉S₆, C₂₆₇H₄₀₄N₇₂O₇₈S₆, C₂₆₇H₄₀₈N₇₂O₇₇S₆ (insulin glargine), C₂₆₇H₄₀₂N₆₄O₇₆S₆ (insulin determir), and the like.

In one embodiment, the orally administering insulin containing nanoparticles comprise a dosage effective amount of the insulin to treat the diabetes comprising an insulin amount of between about 15 units to 45 units, preferably between about 25 units to 35 units, per kilogram body weight of the patient. In a further embodiment, the insulin-containing nanoparticle comprises a trace amount of zinc or calcium, or is treated with enteric coating.

In one embodiment, the insulin containing nanoparticles further comprise at least one paracellular transport enhancer, wherein the paracellular transport enhancer may be selected from the group consisting of Ca²⁺ chelators, bile salts, anionic surfactants, medium-chain fatty acids, and phosphate esters. In another embodiment, the nanoparticles and the paracellular transport enhancer are co-encapsulated in a capsule or are encapsulated separately.

Some aspects of the invention provide nanoparticles for oral administration in a patient, comprising a positively charged shell substrate, a negatively charged core substrate, and a bioactive agent conjugated with the core substrate, wherein the core substrate is selected from the group consisting of heparin, heparin analogs, low molecular weight heparin, glycosaminoglycans, and alginate, the bioactive agent being selected from the group consisting of chondroitin sulfate, hyaluronic acid, growth factor and protein with pharmaceutically effective amount.

Some aspects of the invention provide nanoparticles for oral administration in a patient, comprising a positively charged shell substrate, a negatively charged core substrate, and a bioactive agent conjugated with the core substrate, wherein the bioactive agent is calcitonin or vancomycin.

Some aspects of the invention provide a method of treating Alzheimer's diseases of a patient comprising intravenously administering bioactive nanoparticles with a dosage effective to treat the Alzheimer's diseases, wherein the bioactive nanoparticles comprises a positively charged shell substrate, a negatively charged core substrate, and at least one bioactive agent for treating Alzheimer's disease, wherein the at least one bioactive agent is selected from the group consisting of memantine hydrochloride, donepezil hydrochloride, rivastigmine tartrate, galantamine hydrochloride, and tacrine hydrochloride.

In one embodiment, the dosage effective to treat the Alzheimer's diseases comprises administering the at least one bioactive agent for treating Alzheimer's disease at about 10 mg to 40 mg per day over a period of one month to one year. In another embodiment, at least a portion the shell substrate is crosslinked, preferably at a degree of crosslinking less than about 50%, or most preferably between about 1% and 20%.

One aspect of the invention provides a pharmaceutical composition of nanoparticles, wherein the nanoparticles may be freeze-dried to form solid dried nanoparticles. The dried nanoparticles may be loaded in a capsule (such as a two-part hard gelatin capsule) for oral administration in a patient, wherein the capsule may be further enterically coated. The freeze-dried nanoparticles can be rehydrated in solution or by contacting fluid so to revert to wet nanoparticles having positive surface charge. In one embodiment, nanoparticles may be mixed with trehalose or with hexan-1,2,3,4,5,6-hexyl in a freeze-drying process. In one embodiment, the interior surface of the capsule is treated to be lipophilic or hydrophobic. In another embodiment, the exterior surface of the capsule is enteric-coated.

Some aspects of the invention provide a pharmaceutical composition of nanoparticles characterized by enhancing paracellular transport, each nanoparticle comprising a shell component and a core component, wherein at least a portion of the shell component comprises chitosan and wherein the core component is comprised of MgSO₄, sodium tripolyphosphate, at least one bioactive agent, and a negatively charged compound, wherein a substantial portion of the negatively charged compound is conjugated to the chitosan. In one embodiment, the negatively charged component of the pharmaceutical composition is γ-PGA or a derivative or salt of PGAs.

Some aspects of the invention provide an orally deliverable capsule to an animal subject comprising: (a) an empty capsule; and (b) bioactive nanoparticles loaded within the empty capsule, wherein the nanoparticles comprise a shell substrate of chitosan, a negatively charged core substrate, and at least one bioactive agent. In one embodiment, the empty capsule comprises a two-part hard gelatin capsule. In another embodiment, the capsule is treated with enteric coating.

One object of the present invention is to provide a method of manufacturing the orally deliverable capsule, the method comprising steps of: (a) providing an empty capsule; (b) providing bioactive nanoparticles, wherein the nanoparticles comprise a shell substrate of chitosan, a negatively charged core substrate, and at least one bioactive agent; (c) freeze-drying the nanoparticles; and (d) filling the freeze-dried bioactive nanoparticles into the empty capsule, thereby producing an orally deliverable capsule. In one embodiment, the bioactive nanoparticles further comprise magnesium sulfate and TPP.

Some aspects of the invention provide a pharmaceutical composition of nanoparticles for oral administration in a patient, the nanoparticles comprising a shell portion that is dominated by positively charged chitosan, a core portion that contains negatively charged substrate, wherein the negatively charged substrate is at least partially neutralized with a portion of the positively charged chitosan in the core portion, and at least one bioactive agent loaded within the nanoparticles. In one embodiment, the bioactive agent is a non-insulin exenatide, a non-insulin pramlintide, insulin, insulin analog, or combinations thereof. In one embodiment, the nanoparticles are formed via a simple and mild ionic-gelation method.

In one embodiment of the pharmaceutical composition of the present invention, the substrate is PGA, wherein the PGA may be γ-PGA, α-PGA, PGA derivatives, or salts of PGA. In one embodiment of the pharmaceutical composition of the present invention, the substrate is heparin, wherein the heparin is a low molecular weight heparin.

In one embodiment, a surface of the nanoparticles of the pharmaceutical composition of the present invention is characterized with a positive surface charge, wherein the nanoparticles have a surface charge from about +15 mV to about +50 mV. In another embodiment, the nanoparticles have a mean particle size between about 50 and 400 nanometers. In still another embodiment, at least a portion of the shell portion of the nanoparticles is crosslinked. In a further embodiment, the nanoparticles are in a form of freeze-fried powder. In one embodiment, the nanoparticles of the pharmaceutical composition of the present invention further comprise magnesium sulfate and TPP.

In one embodiment, the nanoparticles of the pharmaceutical composition of the present invention are encapsulated in a capsule, wherein an exterior surface of the capsule may be treated with enteric coating and an interior surface of the capsule may be treated with hydrophobic coating.

In one embodiment, the chitosan has a molecular weight about 80 kDa or less. In another embodiment, the chitosan is trimethyl chitosan.

Some aspects of the invention provide a method of delivering a bioactive agent to blood circulation in a patient, comprising: (a) providing nanoparticles according to the pharmaceutical composition of the present invention, wherein the nanoparticles are formed via a simple and mild ionic-gelation method; (b) administering the nanoparticles orally toward an intestine of the patient; (c) urging the nanoparticles to be absorbed onto a surface of an epithelial membrane of the intestine; (d) permeating bioactive agent to pass through an epithelial barrier of the intestine; and (e) releasing the bioactive agent into the blood circulation. In one embodiment, the bioactive agent is selected from the group consisting of exenatide, pramlintide, insulin, insulin analog, and combinations thereof.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Additional objects and features of the present invention will become more apparent and the disclosure itself will be best understood from the following Detailed Description of the Exemplary Embodiments, when read with reference to the accompanying drawings.

FIG. 1 shows GPC chromatograms of (a) standard-MW CS before depolymerization and the low-MW. CS after depolymerization; (b) the purified γ-PGA obtained from microbial fermentation.

FIG. 2 shows (a) FT-IR and (b) ¹H-NMR spectra of the purified γ-PGA obtained from microbial fermentation.

FIG. 3 shows FT-IR spectra of the low-MW CS and the prepared CS-γ-PGA nanoparticles.

FIG. 4 shows (a) a TEM micrograph of the prepared CS-γ-PGA nanoparticles (0.10% γ-PGA:0.20% CS) and (b) an AFM micrograph of the prepared CS-γ-PGA nanoparticles (0.01% γ-PGA:0.01% CS).

FIG. 5 shows changes in particle size and zeta potential of (a) the CS-γ-PGA nanoparticles (0.10% γ-PGA:0.20% CS) and (b) the CS-γ-PGA nanoparticles (0.10% γ-PGA:0.01% CS) during storage for up to 6 weeks.

FIG. 6 shows effects of the prepared CS-γ-PGA nanoparticles on the TEER values of Caco-2 cell monolayers.

FIGS. 7 a-b show fluorescence images (taken by an inversed confocal laser scanning microscope) of 4 optical sections of a Caco-2 cell monolayer that had been incubated with the fCS-γ-PGA nanoparticles with a positive surface charge (0.10% γ-PGA:0.20% CS) for (a) 20 min and (b) 60 min.

FIG. 8 shows an illustrative protein transport mechanism through a cell layer, including transcellular transport and paracelluler transport.

FIGS. 9A-C show a schematic illustration of a paracellular transport mechanism.

FIG. 10 shows an fCS-γ-PGA nanoparticle with FITC-labeled chitosans having positive surface charge.

FIG. 11 shows loading capacity and association efficiency of insulin in nanoparticles of chitosan and γ-PGA.

FIG. 12 shows loading capacity and association efficiency of insulin in nanoparticles of chitosan as reference.

FIG. 13 shows the stability of insulin-loaded nanoparticles.

FIG. 14 shows a representative in vitro study with insulin drug release profile in a pH-adjusted solution.

FIG. 15 shows the effect of insulin of orally administered insulin-loaded nanoparticles on hypoglycemia in diabetic rats.

FIGS. 16A-C show a proposed mechanism of nanoparticles released from the enteric coated capsules.

FIG. 17 shows the schematic illustration of insulin conjugated with histidine and/or glutamic acid side groups of the γ-PGA via zinc.

FIG. 18 shows the schematic illustration of insulin conjugated with a carboxyl side group of the γ-PGA via zinc.

FIG. 19 shows the effect of orally administered insulin-loaded nanoparticles on ‘glucose reduction %’ in diabetic rats, wherein the freeze-dried nanoparticles were loaded in an enterically coated capsule upon delivery.

FIG. 20 shows insulin-loaded nanoparticles with a core composition consisted of γ-PGA, MgSO₄, sodium tripolyphosphate (TPP), and insulin.

FIG. 21 shows an in vivo subcutaneous study using insulin injectables and insulin-containing nanoparticles.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS

The preferred embodiments of the present invention described below relate particularly to preparation of nanoparticles composed of chitosan/poly-glutamic acid/insulin and their permeability to enhance the intestinal or blood brain paracellular permeation by opening the tight junctions between epithelial cells. While the description sets forth various embodiment specific details, it will be appreciated that the description is illustrative only and should not be construed in any way as limiting the invention. Furthermore, various applications of the invention, and modifications thereto, which may occur to those who are skilled in the art, are also encompassed by the general concepts described below.

γ-PGA is a naturally occurring anionic homo-polyamide that is made of L-glutamic acid units connected by amide linkages between α-amino and γ-carboxylic acid groups (Crit. Rev. Biotechnol. 2001; 21:219-232). It is an exocellular polymer of certain Bacillus species that is produced within cells via the TCA cycle and is freely excreted into the fermentation broth. Its exact biological role is not fully known, although it is likely that γ-PGA is linked to increasing the survival of producing strains when exposed to environmental stresses. Because of its water-solubility, biodegradability, edibility, and non-toxicity toward humans and the environment, several applications of γ-PGA in food, cosmetics, medicine, and water treatment have been investigated in the past few years.

EXAMPLE NO. 1 Materials and Methods of Nanoparticles Preparation

CS (MW ˜2.8×10⁵) with a degree of deacetylation of approximately 85% was acquired from Challenge Bioproducts Co. (Taichung, Taiwan). Acetic acid, cellulase (1.92 units/mg), fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC), phosphate buffered saline (PBS), periodic acid, sodium acetate, formaldehyde, bismuth subnitrate, and Hanks balanced salt solution (HBSS) were purchased from Sigma Chemical Co. (St. Louis, Mo.). Ethanol absolute anhydrous and potassium sodium tartrate were obtained from Merck (Darmstadt, Germany). Non-essential amino acid (NEAA) solution, fetal bovine serum (FBS), gentamicin and trypsin-EDTA were acquired from Gibco (Grand Island, N.Y.). Eagle's minimal essential medium (MEM) was purchased from Bio West (Nuaille, France). All other chemicals and reagents used were of analytical grade.

EXAMPLE NO. 2 Depolymerization of CS by Enzymatic Hydrolysis

Regular CS was treated with enzyme (cellulase) to produce low-MW CS according to a method described by Qin et al. with some modifications (Food Chem. 2004; 84:107-115). A solution of CS (20 g/l) was prepared by dissolving CS in 2% acetic acid. Care was taken to ensure total solubility of CS. Then, the CS solution was introduced into a vessel and adjusted to the desired pH 5.0 with 2N aqueous NaOH. Subsequently, cellulase (0.1 g) was added into the CS solution (100 ml) and continuously stirred at 37° C. for 12 hours. Afterward, the depolymerized CS was precipitated with aqueous NaOH at pH 7.0-7.2 and the precipitated CS was washed three times with deionized water. The resulting low-MW CS was lyophilized in a freeze dryer (Eyela Co. Ltd, Tokyo, Japan).

The average molecular weight of the depolymerized CS was determined by a gel permeation chromatography (GPC) system equipped with a series of PL aquagel-OH columns (one Guard 8 μm, 50×7.5 mm and two MIXED 8 μm, 300×7.5 mm, PL Laboratories, UK) and a refractive index (R1) detector (R12000-F, SFD, Torrance, Calif.). Polysaccharide standards (molecular weights range from 180 to 788,000, Polymer Laboratories, UK) were used to construct a calibration curve. The mobile phase contained 0.01 MNaH₂PO₄ and 0.5M NaNO₃ and was brought to a pH of 2.0. The flow rate of mobile phase was 1.0 ml/min, and the columns and the RI detector cell were maintained at 30° C.

Factors limiting applications of most commercially available CSs are their high molecular weight and thus high viscosity and poor solubility at physiological pH ranges. Low-MW CS overcomes these limitations and hence finds much wider applications in diversified fields. It was suggested that low-MW CS be used as a parenteral drug carrier due to its lower antigen effect (Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm. 2004; 57:101-105). Low-MW CS was used as a non-viral gene delivery system and showed promising results (Int. J. Pharm. 1999; 178:231-243). Other studies based on animal testing showed the possibilities of low-MW CS for treatment of type 2 diabetes and gastric ulcer (Biol. Pharm. Bull. 2002; 25:188-192). Several hydrolytic enzymes such as lysozyme, pectinase, cellulase, bromelain, hemicellulase, lipase, papain and the like can be used to depolymerize CS (Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1996; 1291:5-15; Biochem. Eng. J. 2001; 7:85-88; Carbohydr. Res. 1992; 237:325-332).

FIG. 1 a shows GPC chromatograms of both standard-MW (also known as regular-MW) and low-MW CS. It is known that cellulase catalyzes the cleavage of the glycosidic linkage in CS (Food Chem. 2004; 84:107-115). The low-MW CS used in the study was obtained by precipitating the depolymerized CS solution with aqueous NaOH at pH 7.0-7.2. Thus, obtained low-MW CS had a MW of about 50 kDa (FIG. 1 a). In a preferred embodiment, the low molecular weight chitosan has a molecular weight of less than about 40 kDa, but above 10 kDa. Other forms of chitosan may also be applicable, including chitin, chitosan oligosaccharides, and derivatives thereof.

It was observed that the obtained low-MW CS can be readily dissolved in an aqueous solution at pH 6.0, while that before depolymerization needs to be dissolved in an acetic acid solution with a pH value about 4.0. Additionally, it was found that with the low-MW CS, the prepared nanoparticles had a significantly smaller size with a narrower distribution than their counterparts prepared with the high-MW (also known as standard-MW) CS (before depolymerization), due to its lower viscosity. As an example, upon adding a 0.10% γ-PGA aqueous solution into a 0.20% high-MW CS solution (viscosity 5.73±0.08 cp, measured by a viscometer), the mean particle size of the prepared nanoparticles was 878.3±28.4 nm with a polydispersity index of 1.0, whereas adding a 0.10% γ-PGA aqueous solution into the low-MW CS solution (viscosity 1.29±0.02 cp) formed nanoparticles with a mean particle size of 218.1±4.1 nm with a polydispersity index of 0.3 (n=5).

EXAMPLE NO. 3 Production and Purification of γ-PGA

γ-PGA was produced by Bacillus licheniformi s (ATCC 9945, Bioresources Collection and Research Center, Hsinchu, Taiwan) as per a method reported by Yoon et al. with slight modifications (Biotechnol. Lett. 2000; 22:585-588). Highly mucoid colonies (ATCC 9945a) were selected from Bacillus licheniformis (ATCC 9945) cultured on the E medium (ingredients comprising L-glutamic acid, 20.0 g/l; citric acid, 12.0 g/l; glycerol, 80.0 g/l; NH₄Cl, 7.0 g/l; K₂HPO₄, 0.5 g/l; MgSO₄.7H₂O, 0.5 g/l; FeCl₃.6H₂O, 0.04 g/l; CaCl₂.2H₂O, 0.15 g/l; MnSO₄.H₂O, 0.104 g/l, pH 6.5) agar plates at 37° C. for several times. Subsequently, young mucoid colonies were transferred into 10 ml E medium and grown at 37° C. in a shaking incubator at 250 rpm for 24 hours. Afterward, 500 μl of culture broth was mixed with 50 ml E medium and was transferred into a 2.5-1 jar-fermentor (KMJ-2B, Mituwa Co., Osaka, Japan) containing 950 ml of E medium. Cells were cultured at 37° C. The pH was controlled at 6.5 by automatic feeding of 25% (v/v) NH₄OH and/or 2M HCl. The dissolved oxygen concentration was initially controlled at 40% of air saturation by supplying air and by controlling the agitation speed up to 1000 rpm.

After 40 hours, cells were separated from the culture broth by centrifugation for 20 minutes at 12,000×g at 4° C. The supernatant containing γ-PGA was poured into 4 volumes of methanol and left overnight with gentle stirring. The resulting precipitate containing crude γ-PGA was collected by centrifugation for 40 minutes at 12,000×g at 4° C. and then was dissolved in deionized water to remove insoluble impurities by centrifugation for 20 minutes at 24,000×g at 4° C. The aqueous γ-PGA solution was desalted by dialysis (MWCO: 100,000, Spectrum Laboratories, Inc., Laguna Hills, Calif.) against distilled water for 12 hours with water exchanges several times, and finally was lyophilized to obtain pure γ-PGA.

The purified γ-PGA was verified by the proton nuclear magnetic resonance (¹H-NMR) and the FT-IR analyses. Analysis of ¹H-NMR was conducted on an NMR spectrometer (Varian Unityionva 500 NMR Spectrometer, MO) using DMSO-d₆ at 2.49 ppm as an internal reference. Test samples used for the FT-IR analysis first were dried and ground into a powder form. The powder then was mixed with KBr (1:100) and pressed into a disk. Analysis was performed on an FT-IR spectrometer (Perkin Elmer Spectrum RX1 FT-IR System, Buckinghamshire, England). The samples were scanned from 400-4000 cm⁻¹. The average molecular weight of the purified γ-PGA was determined by the same GPC system as described before. Polyethylene glycol (molecular weights of 106-22,000) and polyethylene oxide (molecular weights of 20,000-1,000,000, PL Laboratories) standards were used to construct a calibration curve. The mobile phase contained 0.01M NaH₂PO₄ and 0.2M NaNO₃ and was brought to a pH of 7.0.

The purified γ-PGA obtained from fermentation was analyzed by GPC, ¹H-NMR, and FT-IR. As analyzed by GPC (FIG. 1 b), the purified γ-PGA had a MW of about 160 kDa. In the FT-IR spectrum (FIG. 2 a), a characteristic peak at 1615 cm⁻¹ for the associated carboxylic acid salt (—COO⁻ antisymmetric stretch) on γ-PGA was observed. The characteristic absorption due to C═O in secondary amides (amide I band) was overlapped by the characteristic peak of —COO⁻. Additionally, the characteristic peak observed at 3400 cm⁻¹ was the N—H stretch of γ-PGA. In the ¹H-NMR spectrum (FIG. 2 b), six chief signals were observed at 1.73 and 1.94 ppm (β-CH₂), 2.19 ppm (γ-CH₂), 4.14 ppm (α-CH), 8.15 ppm (amide), and 12.58 ppm (COOH). These results indicated that the observed FT-IR and ¹H-NMR spectra correspond well to those expected for γ-PGA. Additionally, the fermented product after purification showed no detected macromolecular impurities by the ¹H-NMR analysis, suggesting that the obtained white power of γ-PGA is highly pure.

EXAMPLE NO. 4 Preparation of the CS-γ-PGA Nanoparticles

Nanoparticles were obtained upon addition of γ-PGA aqueous solution (pH 7.4, 2 ml), using a pipette (0.5-5 ml, PLASTIBRAND®, BrandTech Scientific Inc., Germany), into a low-MW CS aqueous solution (pH 6.0, 10 ml) at varying concentrations (0.01%, 0.05%, 0.10%, 0.15%, or 0.20% by w/v) under magnetic stirring at room temperature. Nanoparticles were collected by ultracentrifugation at 38,000 rpm for 1 hour. Supernatants were discarded and nanoparticles were resuspended in deionized water for further studies. FT-IR was used to analyze peak variations of amino groups of low-MW CS and carboxylic acid salts of γ-PGA in the CS-γ-PGA nanoparticles.

As stated, nanoparticles were obtained instantaneously upon addition of a γ-PGA aqueous solution (pH 7.4) into a low-MW CS aqueous solution (pH 6.0) under magnetic stirring at room temperature. FIG. 3 shows the FT-IR spectra of the low-MW CS and the CS-γ-PGA nanoparticles. As shown in the spectrum of CS, the characteristic peak observed at 1563 cm⁻¹ was the protonated amino group (—NH₃ ⁺ deformation) on CS. In the spectrum of CS-γ-PGA complex, the characteristic peak at 1615 cm⁻¹ for —COO⁻ on γ-PGA disappeared and a new peak at 1586 cm⁻¹ appeared, while the characteristic peak of —NH₃ ⁺ deformation on CS at 1563 cm⁻¹ shifted to 1555 cm⁻¹. These observations are attributed to the electrostatic interaction between the negatively charged carboxylic acid salts (—COO⁻) on γ-PGA and the positively charged amino groups (—NH₃ ⁺) on CS (Int. J. Pharm. 2003; 250:215-226). The electrostatic interaction between the two polyelectrolytes (γ-PGA and CS) instantaneously induced the formation of long hydrophobic segments (or at least segments with a high density of neutral ion-pairs), and thus resulted in highly neutralized complexes that segregated into colloidal nanoparticles (Langmuir. 2004; 20:7766-7778).

EXAMPLE NO. 5 Characterization of the CS-γ-PGA Nanoparticles

The morphological examination of the CS-γ-PGA nanoparticles was performed by TEM (transmission electron microscopy) and AFM (atomic force microscopy). The TEM sample was prepared by placing a drop of the nanoparticle solution onto a 400 mesh copper grid coated with carbon. About 2 minutes after deposition, the grid was tapped with a filter paper to remove surface water and positively stained by using an alkaline bismuth solution (Microbiol. Immunol. 1986; 30:1207-1211). The AFM sample was prepared by casting a drop of the nanoparticle solution on a slide glass and then dried in vacuum. The size distribution and zeta potential of the prepared nanoparticles were measured using a Zetasizer (3000HS, Malvem Instruments Ltd., Worcestershire, UK).

During storage, aggregation of nanoparticles may occur and thus leads to losing their structural integrity or forming precipitation of nanoparticles (Eur. J. Pharm. Sci. 1999; 8:99-107). Therefore, the stability of nanoparticles during storage must be evaluated. In the stability study, the prepared nanoparticles suspended in deionized water (1 mg/ml) were stored at 4° C. and their particle sizes and zeta potential values were monitored by the same Zetasizer as mentioned earlier during storage.

In the preparation of nanoparticles, samples were visually analyzed and three distinct solution systems were identified: clear solution, opalescent suspension, and solution with precipitation of aggregates. Examined by the Zetasizer, nanoparticles were found in the clear solution and the opalescent suspension rather than in the solution with precipitation of aggregates.

The particle sizes and the zeta potential values of CS-γ-PGA nanoparticles, prepared at varying concentrations of γ-PGA and CS, were determined and the results are shown in Tables 1a and 1b. It was found that the particle size and the zeta potential value of the prepared nanoparticles were mainly determined by the relative amount of the local concentration of γ-PGA in the added solution to the surrounding concentration of CS in the sink solution. At a fixed concentration of CS, an increase in the γ-PGA concentration allowed γ-PGA molecules interacting with more CS molecules, and thus formed a lager size of nanoparticles (Table 1a, p<0.05). When the amount of CS molecules exceeded that of local γ-PGA molecules, some of the excessive CS molecules were entangled onto the surfaces of CS-γ-PGA nanoparticles.

Thus, the resulting nanoparticles may display a structure of a neutral polyelectrolyte-complex core surrounded by a positively charged CS shell (Table 1b) ensuring the colloidal stabilization (Langmuir. 2004; 20:7766-7778). In contrast, as the amount of local γ-PGA molecules sufficiently exceeded that of surrounding CS molecules, the formed nanoparticles had γ-PGA exposed on the surfaces and thus had a negative charge of zeta potential. Therefore, the particle size and the zeta potential value of the prepared CS-γ-PGA nanoparticles can be controlled by their constituted compositions. The results obtained by the TEM and AFM examinations showed that the morphology of the prepared nanoparticles was spherical in shape with a smooth surface (FIGS. 4 a and 4 b). Some aspects of the invention relate to nanoparticles having a mean particle size between about 50 and 400 nanometers, preferably between about 100 and 300 nanometers, and most preferably between about 100 and 200 nanometers. The morphology of the nanoparticles shows spherical in shape with a smooth surface at any pH between 2.5 and 6.6. In one embodiment, the stability of the nanoparticles of the present invention at a low pH around 2.5 enables the nanoparticles to be intact when exposed to the acidic medium in the stomach.

Two representative groups of the prepared nanoparticles were selected for the stability study: one with a positive surface charge (0.10% γ-PGA:0.20% CS) and the other with a negative surface charge (0.10% γ-PGA:0.01% CS). FIG. 5 shows changes in particle size (▪, mean diameter) and zeta potential (●) of (a) the CS-γ-PGA nanoparticles (0.10% γ-PGA:0.20% CS) and (b) the CS-γ-PGA nanoparticles (0.10% γ-PGA:0.01% CS) during storage for up to 6 weeks. It was found that neither aggregation nor precipitation of nanoparticles was observed during storage for up to 6 weeks, as a result of the electrostatic repulsion between the positively charged CS-γ-PGA nanoparticles (for the former group) or the negatively charged CS-γ-PGA nanoparticles (for the latter group).

Additionally, changes in particle size and zeta potential of the nanoparticles were minimal for both studied groups (FIGS. 5 a and 5 b). These results demonstrated that the prepared nanoparticles suspended in deionized water were stable during storage.

In a further study, NPs were self-assembled instantaneously upon addition of an aqueous γ-PGA into an aqueous TMC (N-trimethyl chitosan) having a TMC/γ-PGA weight ratio of 6:1 under magnetic stirring at room temperature. The chemical formulas of chitosan and N-trimethyl chitosan are shown below:

The amount of positively charged TMC significantly exceeded that of negatively charged γ-PGA; some of excessive TMC molecules were entangled onto the surfaces of NPs, thus displaying a positive surface charge (Table 2). The degree of quaternization on TMC had little effects on the mean particle size and zeta potential of NPs.

TABLE 1a Effects of concentrations of γ-PGA and CS on the particle sizes of the prepared CS-γ-PGA nanoparticles M{hacek over (e)}an Particle Size (nm, n = 5) CS γ-PGA 0.01%^(a)) 0.05% 0.10% 0.15% 0.20% 0.01%^(b))  79.0 ± 3.0 103.1 ± 4.6  96.7 ± 1.9 103.6 ± 1.9 140.5 ± 2.0 0.05% 157.4 ± 1.7 120.8 ± 3.9 144.5 ± 2.4 106.2 ± 3.8 165.4 ± 1.7 0.10% 202.2 ± 3.1 232.6 ± 1.2 161.0 ± 1.8 143.7 ± 2.7 218.1 ± 4.1 0.15% 277.7 ± 3.2 264.9 ± 2.1 188.6 ± 2.9 178.0 ± 2.2 301.1 ± 6.4 0.20% 284.1 ± 2.1 402.2 ± 4.0 ▴ 225.5 ± 3.1 365.5 ± 5.1 ^(a))concentration of CS (by w/v) ^(b))concentration of γ-PGA (by w/v) ▴ precipitation of aggregates was observed

TABLE 1b Effects of concentrations of γ-PGA and CS on the zeta potential values of the prepared CS-γ-PGA nanoparticles. Zeta Potential (mV, n = 5) CS γ-PGA 0.01%^(a)) 0.05% 0.10% 0.15% 0.20% 0.01%^(b))   15.4 ± 0.3 22.8 ± 0.5 19.8 ± 1.5 16.5 ± 1.4 17.2 ± 1.6 0.05% −32.7 ± 0.7 23.7 ± 1.7 27.6 ± 0.7 20.3 ± 0.8 19.2 ± 0.6 0.10% −33.1 ± 1.3 21.1 ± 1.6 20.3 ± 1.1 23.6 ± 0.9 24.7 ± 1.2 0.15% −33.2 ± 2.1 −21.9 ± 2.0   19.2 ± 0.4 16.9 ± 1.7 19.8 ± 0.3 0.20% −34.5 ± 0.5 −34.6 ± 0.3   ▴ 14.6 ± 0.7 16.3 ± 0.7 ^(a))concentration of CS (by w/v) ^(b))concentration of γ-PGA (by w/v) ▴ precipitation of aggregates was observed

TABLE 2 Mean particle sizes, zeta potential values and polydispersity indices of nanoparticles (NPs) self-assembled by TMC polymers with different degrees of quaternization and γ-PGA (n = 5 batches). Mean Particle Zeta Potential Polydispersity Size (nm) (mV) Index CS/γ-PGA NPs 104.1 ± 1.2 36.2 ± 2.5 0.11 ± 0.02 TMC25/γ-PGA NPs 101.3 ± 3.1 30.9 ± 2.1 0.13 ± 0.04 TMC40/γ-PGA NPs 106.3 ± 2.3 32.3 ± 2.1 0.15 ± 0.14 TMC55/γ-PGA NPs 114.6 ± 2.3 30.6 ± 3.8 0.12 ± 0.03 TMC: N-trimethyl chitosan; CS: chitosan; γ-PGA: poly(γ-glutamic acid).

EXAMPLE NO. 6 Caco-2 Cell Cultures and TEER Measurements

Caco-2 cells were seeded on the tissue-culture-treated polycarbonate filters (diameter 24.5 mm, growth area 4.7 cm²) in Costar Transwell 6 wells/plates (Corning Costar Corp., NY) at a seeding density of 3×10⁵ cells/insert. MEM (pH 7.4) supplemented with 20% FBS, 1% NEAA, and 40 μg/ml antibiotic-gentamicin was used as the culture medium, and added to both the donor and acceptor compartments. The medium was replaced every 48 hours for the first 6 days and every 24 hours thereafter. The cultures were kept in an atmosphere of 95% air and 5% CO₂ at 37° C. and were used for the paracellular transport experiments 18-21 days after seeding (TEER values in the range of 600-800 Ωcm²).

TEER values of the Caco-2 cell monolayers were monitored with a Millicell®-Electrical Resistance System (Millipore Corp., Bedford, Mass.) connected to a pair of chopstick electrodes. To initiate the transport experiments, the culture media in the donor and acceptor compartments were aspirated, and the cells were rinsed twice with pre-warmed transport media (HBSS supplemented with 25 mM glucose, pH 6.0). Following a 30-min equilibration with the transport media at 37° C., the cells were incubated for 2 hours with 2 ml transport media containing 0.5 ml test nanoparticle solutions (0.2 mg/ml) at 37° C. Subsequently, solutions of nanoparticles were carefully removed and cells were washed three times with HBSS and replaced by fresh culture media. The TEER was measured for another 20 hours to study reversibility of the effect of test nanoparticles on Caco-2 cell monolayers (Eur. J. Pharm. Sci. 2000; 10:205-214).

The intercellular tight junction is one of the major barriers to the paracellular transport of macromolecules (J. Control. Release 1996; 39:131-138; J. Control. Release 1998; 51:35-46). Trans-epithelial ion transport is contemplated to be a good indication of the tightness of the junctions between cells and was evaluated by measuring TEER of Caco-2 cell monolayers in the study. It was reported that the measurement of TEER can be used to predict the paracellular transport of hydrophilic molecules (Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm. 2004; 58:225-235). When the tight junctions open, the TEER value will be reduced due to the water and ion passage through the paracellular route. Caco-2 cell monolayers have been widely used as an in vitro model to evaluate the intestinal paracellular permeability of macromolecules.

Effects of the prepared CS-γ-PGA nanoparticles on the TEER values of Caco-2 cell monolayers are shown in FIG. 6. As shown, the prepared nanoparticles with a positive surface charge (CS dominated on the surface, 0.01% γ-PGA:0.05% CS, 0.10% γ-PGA:0.2% CS, and 0.20% γ-PGA:0.20% CS) were able to reduce the values of TEER of Caco-2 cell monolayers significantly (p<0.05). After a 2-hour incubation with these nanoparticles, the TEER values of Caco-2 cell monolayers were reduced to about 50% of their initial values as compared to the control group (without addition of nanoparticles in the transport media). This indicated that the nanoparticles with CS dominated on the surfaces could effectively open or loosen the tight junctions between Caco-2 cells, resulting in a decrease in the TEER values. It was reported that interaction of the positively charged amino groups of CS with the negatively charged sites on cell surfaces and tight junctions induces a redistribution of F-actin and the tight junction's protein ZO-1, which accompanies the increased paracellular permeability (Drug Deliv. Rev. 2001; 50:S91-S101). It is suggested that an interaction between chitosan and the tight junction protein ZO-1, leads to its translocation to the cytoskeleton.

After removal of the incubated nanoparticles, a gradual increase in TEER values was noticed. This phenomenon indicated that the intercellular tight junctions of Caco-2 cell monolayers started to recover gradually; however, the TEER values did not recover to their initial values (FIG. 6). Kotze et al. reported that complete removal of a CS-derived polymer, without damaging the cultured cells, was difficult due to the highly adhesive feature of CS (Pharm. Res. 1997; 14:1197-1202). This might be the reason why the TEER values did not recover to their initial values. In contrast, the TEER values of Caco-2 cell monolayers incubated with the nanoparticles with a negative surface charge (γ-PGA dominated on the surface, 0.10% γ-PGA:0.01% CS and 0.20% γ-PGA:0.01% CS, FIG. 6) showed no significant differences as compared to the control group (p>0.05). This indicated that γ-PGA does not have any effects on the opening of the intercellular tight junctions.

FIG. 8 shows an illustrative protein transport mechanism through a cellular layer, including transcellular transport and paracelluler transport. FIG. 9 shows a schematic illustration of a paracellular transport mechanism. The transcellular protein or peptide transport may be an active transport or a passive transport mode whereas the paracellular transport is basically a passive mode. Ward et al. reported and reviewed current knowledge regarding the physiological regulation of tight junctions and paracellular permeability (PSTT 2000; 3:346-358). Chitosan as nanoparticle vehicles for oral delivery of protein drugs avoids the enzymatic inactivation in the gastrointestinal conduit. The chitosan component of the present nanoparticles has a special feature of adhering to the mucosal surface and transiently opening the tight junctions between epithelial cells; that is, loosening the tightness of the tight junctions.

FIG. 9(A) shows that after feeding nanoparticles (NPs) orally, NPs adhere and infiltrate into the mucus layer of the epithelial cells. FIG. 9(B) illustrates that the infiltrated NPs transiently and reversibly loosen tight junctions (TJs) while becoming unstable and disintegrated to release insulin or entrapped agent. FIG. 9( c) shows that the released insulin or agent permeates through the paracellular pathway into the blood stream. Chitosan (CS), a nontoxic, soft-tissue compatible, cationic polysaccharide has special features of adhering to the mucosal surface; CS is able to transiently and reversibly widen/loosen TJs between epithelial cells. The TJ width in the small intestine has been demonstrated to be less than 1 nm. It is also known that TJs ‘opened’ by absorption enhancers are less than 20 nm wide (Nanotechnology 2007; 18:1-11). The term “opened” herein means that any substance less than 20 nm in the close-proximity might have the chance to pass through. TJs constitute the principal barrier to passive movement of fluid, electrolytes, macromolecules and cells through the paracellular pathway.

It was suggested that the electrostatic interaction between the positively charged CS and the negatively charged sites of ZO-1 proteins on cell surfaces at TJ induces a redistribution of cellular F-actin and ZO-1's translocation to the cytoskeleton, leading to an increase in paracellular permeability. As evidenced in FIG. 9, after adhering and infiltrating into the mucus layer of the duodenum, the orally administered nanoparticles may degrade due to the presence of distinct digestive enzymes in the intestinal fluids. Additionally, the pH environment may become neutral while the nanoparticles were infiltrating into the mucosa layer and approaching the intestinal epithelial cells. This further leads to the collapse of nanoparticles due to the change in the exposed pH environment. The dissociated CS from the degraded/collapsed nanoparticles was then able to interact and modulate the function of ZO-1 proteins between epithelial cells (Nanotechnology 2007; 18:1-11). ZO-1 proteins are thought to be a linkage molecule between occludin and F-actin cytoskeleton and play important roles in the rearrangement of cell-cell contacts at TJs.

EXAMPLE NO. 7 fCS-γ-PGA Nanoparticle Preparation and CLSM Visualization

Fluorescence (FITC)-labeled CS-γ-PGA (fCS-γ-PGA) nanoparticles (FIG. 10) were prepared for the confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) study. The nanoparticles of the present invention display a structure of a neutral polyelectrolyte-complex core surrounded by a positively charged chitosan shell. Synthesis of the FITC-labeled low-MW CS (fCS) was based on the reaction between the isothiocyanate group of FITC and the primary amino groups of CS as reported in the literature (Pharm. Res. 2003; 20:1812-1819). Briefly, 100 mg of FITC in 150 ml of dehydrated methanol were added to 100 ml of 1% low-MW CS in 0.1M acetic acid. After 3 hours of reaction in the dark at ambient conditions, fCS was precipitated by raising the pH to about 8-9 with 0.5M NaOH. To remove the unconjugated FITC, the precipitate was subjected to repeated cycles of washing and centrifugation (40,000×g for 10 min) until no fluorescence was detected in the supernatant. The fCS dissolved in 80 ml of 0.1M acetic acid was then dialyzed for 3 days in the dark against 5 liters of distilled water, with water replaced on a daily basis. The resultant fCS was lyophilized in a freeze dryer. The fCS-γ-PGA nanoparticles were prepared as per the procedure described in Example No. 4.

Subsequently, the transport medium containing fCS-γ-PGA nanoparticles (0.2 mg/ml) was introduced into the donor compartment of Caco-2 cells, which were pre-cultured on the transwell for 18-21 days. The experimental temperature was maintained at 37° C. by a temperature control system (DH-35 Culture Dish Heater, Warner Instruments Inc., Hamden, Conn.). After incubation for specific time intervals, test samples were aspirated. The cells were then washed twice with pre-warmed PBS solution before they were fixed in 3.7% paraformaldehyde (Pharm. Res. 2003; 20:1812-1819). Cells were examined under an inversed CLSM (TCS SL, Leica, Germany). The fluorescence images were observed using an argon laser (excitation at 488 nm, emission collected at a range of 510-540 nm).

CLSM was used to visualize the transport of the fluorescence-labeled CS-γ-PGA (fCS-γ-PGA) nanoparticles across the Caco-2 cell monolayers. This non-invasive method allows for optical sectioning and imaging of the transport pathways across the Caco-2 cell monolayers, without disrupting their structures (J. Control. Release 1996; 39:131-138). FIGS. 7 a and 7 b show the fluorescence images of 4 optical sections of a Caco-2 cell monolayer that had been incubated with the fCS-γ-PGA nanoparticles having a positive surface charge (0.10% γ-PGA:0.20% CS, zeta potential: about 21 mV) for 20 and 60 min, respectively. As shown, after 20 min of incubation with the nanoparticles, intense fluorescence signals at intercellular spaces were observed at depths of 0 and 5 μm from the apical (upper) surface of the cell monolayer. The intensity of fluorescence became weaker at levels deeper than 10 μm from the apical surface of the cell monolayer and was almost absent at depths ≧15 μm (FIG. 7 a).

After 60 minutes of incubation with the nanoparticles, the intensity of fluorescence observed at intercellular spaces was stronger and appeared at a deeper level than those observed at 20 min after incubation. These observations confirmed with our TEER results that the nanoparticles with a positive surface charge (CS dominated on the surface) were able to open the tight junctions between Caco-2 cells and allowed transport of the nanoparticles by passive diffusion via the paracellular pathways.

EXAMPLE NO. 8 In Vivo Study with Fluorescence-Labeled Nanoparticles

Fluorescence (FITC)-labeled CS-γ-PGA (fCS-γ-PGA) nanoparticles were prepared for the confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) study. After feeding rats with fCS-γ-PGA nanoparticles, the rats are sacrificed at a pre-determined time and the intestine is isolated for CLSM examination. The fluorescence images of the nanoparticles were clearly observed by CLSM that penetrates through the mouse intestine at appropriate time and at various depths from the inner surface toward the exterior surface of the intestine, including duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.

EXAMPLE NO. 9 Insulin Loading Capacity in Nanoparticles

Fluorescence (FITC)-labeled γ-PGA was added into chitosan solution to prepare fluorescence (FITC)-labeled, insulin-loaded CS-γ-PGA nanoparticles for in vivo animal study with confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) assessment and bioactivity analysis. The insulin-loaded CS-γ PGA nanoparticles are by using the ionic-gelation method upon addition of insulin mixed with γ-PGA solution into CS solution, followed by magnetic stirring in a container.

Model insulin used in the experiment and disclosed herein is obtained from bovine pancreas (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, Mo.), having a molecular formula of C₂₅₄H₃₇₇N₆₅O₇₅S₆ with a molecular weight of about 5733.5 and an activity of ≧27 USP units/mg. The insulin contains two-chain polypeptide hormone produced by the 0-cells of pancreatic islets. The α and β chains are joined by two interchain disulfide bonds. Insulin regulates the cellular uptake, utilization, and storage of glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids and inhibits the breakdown of glycogen, protein, and fat. The insulin from Sigma-Aldrich contains about 0.5% zinc. Separately, insulin can be obtained from other sources, such as human insulin solution that is chemically defined, recombinant from Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Some aspects of the invention relate to nanoparticles with insulin in the core, wherein the insulin may contain intermediate-acting, regular insulin, rapid-acting insulin, sustained-acting insulin that provides slower onset and longer duration of activity than regular insulin, or combinations thereof.

Examples of insulin or insulin analog products include, but not limited to, Humulin® (by Eli Lilly), Humalog® (by Eli Lilly) and Lantus® (by Aventis), and Novolog® Mix70/30 (by Novo Nordisk). Humalog (insulin lispro, rDNA origin) is a human insulin analog that is a rapid-acting, parenteral blood glucose-lowering agent. Chemically, it is Lys(B28), Pro(B29) human insulin analog, created when the amino acids at positions 28 and 29 on the insulin B-chain are reversed. Humalog is synthesized in a special non-pathogenic laboratory strain of Escherichia coli bacteria that has been genetically altered by the addition of the gene for insulin lispro. Humalog has the empirical formula C₂₅₇H₃₈₃N₆₅O₇₇S₆ and a molecular weight of 5808, identical to that of human insulin. The vials and cartridges contain a sterile solution of Humalog for use as an injection. Humalog injection consists of zinc-insulin lispro crystals dissolved in a clear aqueous fluid. Each milliliter of Humalog injection contains insulin lispro 100 Units, 16 mg glycerin, 1.88 mg dibasic sodium phosphate, 3.15 mg m-cresol, zinc oxide content adjusted to provide 0.0197 mg zinc ion, trace amounts of phenol, and water for injection. Insulin lispro has a pH of 7.0-7.8. Hydrochloric acid 10% and/or sodium hydroxide 10% may be added to adjust pH.

Humulin is used by more than 4 million people with diabetes around the world every day. Despite its name, this insulin does not come from human beings. It is identical in chemical structure to human insulin and is made in a factory using a chemical process called recombinant DNA technology. Humulin L is an amorphous and crystalline suspension of human insulin with a slower onset and a longer duration of activity (up to 24 hours) than regular insulin. Humulin U is a crystalline suspension of human insulin with zinc providing a slower onset and a longer and less intense duration of activity (up to 28 hours) than regular insulin or the intermediate-acting insulins (NPH and Lente).

LANTUS® (insulin glargine [rDNA origin] injection) is a sterile solution of insulin glargine for use as an injection. Insulin glargine is a recombinant human insulin analog that is a long-acting (up to 24-hour duration of action), parenteral blood-glucose-lowering agent. LANTUS is produced by recombinant DNA technology utilizing a non-pathogenic laboratory strain of Escherichia coli (K12) as the production organism. Insulin glargine differs from human insulin in that the amino acid asparagine at position A21 is replaced by glycine and two arginines are added to the C-terminus of the B-chain. Chemically, it is 21^(A)-Gly-30^(B)a-L-Arg-30^(B)b-L-Arg-human insulin and has the empirical formula C₂₆₇H₄₀₄N₇₂O₇₈S₆ and a molecular weight of 6063.

LANTUS consists of insulin glargine dissolved in a clear aqueous fluid. Each milliliter of LANTUS (insulin glargine injection) contains 100 IU (3.6378 mg) insulin glargine. Inactive ingredients for the 10 mL vial are 30 mcg zinc, 2.7 mg m-cresol, 20 mg glycerol 85%, 20 mcg polysorbate 20, and water for injection. Inactive ingredients for the 3 mL cartridge are 30 mcg zinc, 2.7 mg m-cresol, 20 mg glycerol 85%, and water for injection. In 2006, there were 11.4 million prescriptions of Lantus in the U.S. for basal insulin maintenance.

Novolog® Mix70/30 (70% insulin aspart protamine suspension and 30% insulin aspart injection [rDNA origin]) is a human insulin analog suspension. Novolog® Mix70/30 is a blood glucose-lowering agent with a rapid onset and an intermediate duration of action. Insulin aspart is homologous with regular human insulin with the exception of a single substitution of the amino acid praline by aspartic acid in position B28, and is produced by recombinant DNA technology utilizing Saccharomyces cerevisiae as the production organism. Insulin aspart (Novolog) has the empirical formula C₂₅₆H₃₈₁N₆₅O₇₉S₆ and a molecular weight of 5826. Novolog® Mix70/30 is a uniform, white sterile suspension that contains zinc 19.6 μg/ml and other components.

The nanoparticles with two insulin concentrations are prepared at a chitosan to γ-PGA ratio of 0.75 mg/ml to 0.167 mg/ml. Their particle size and zeta potential are shown in Table 3 below.

TABLE 3 Insulin Conc. Mean Particle Size Polydispersity Zeta Potential (mg/ml) (n = 5) (nm) Index (PI) (mV) 0*   145.6 ± 1.9 0.14 ± 0.01 +32.11 ± 1.61 0.042 185.1 ± 5.6 0.31 ± 0.05 +29.91 ± 1.02 0.083 198.4 ± 6.2 0.30 ± 0.09 +27.83 ± 1.22 *control reference without insulin

Further, their association efficiency of insulin and loading capacity of insulin are analyzed, calculated and shown in FIGS. 11 and 12, according to the following formula:

${{Insulin}\mspace{14mu}{Association}\mspace{14mu}{{Efficiency}\left( {L\; E\mspace{14mu}\%} \right)}} = {\frac{\left( {{{Total}\mspace{14mu}{amount}\mspace{14mu}{of}\mspace{14mu}{insulin}} - {{Insulin}\mspace{14mu}{in}\mspace{14mu}{supernatant}}} \right)}{{Total}\mspace{14mu}{amount}\mspace{14mu}{of}\mspace{14mu}{insulin}} \times 100\%}$ ${{Loading}\mspace{14mu}{{Capacity}\left( {L\; C} \right)}} = {\frac{\left( {{{Total}\mspace{14mu}{amount}\mspace{14mu}{of}\mspace{14mu}{insulin}} - {{Insulin}\mspace{14mu}{in}\mspace{14mu}{supernatant}}} \right)}{{Weight}\mspace{14mu}{of}\mspace{14mu}{recovered}\mspace{14mu}{particles}} \times 100\%}$

FIG. 11 shows loading capacity and association efficiency of insulin in nanoparticles of chitosan and γ-PGA, whereas FIG. 12 shows loading capacity and association efficiency of insulin in nanoparticles of chitosan alone (in absence of γ-PGA) as reference. The data clearly demonstrates that both the insulin loading capacity and insulin association efficiency are statistically higher for the nanoparticles with γ-PGA in the core. The LE (40˜55%) and LC (5.0˜14:0%) of insulin for CS-γ PGA nanoparticles was obtained by using ionic-gelation method upon addition of insulin mixed with γ-PGA solution into CS solution, followed by magnetic stirring for nanoparticle separation.

In certain follow-up experiments, nanoparticles having a pharmaceutical composition have been successfully prepared with a negatively charged component comprised of γ-PGA, α-PGA, PGA derivatives, salts of PGA, heparin or heparin analog, glycosaminoglycans, or alginate. The PGA derivatives of the present invention may include, but not limited to, poly-γ-glutamic acid, poly-α-glutamic acid, poly-L-glutamic acid (manufactured by Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, Mo.), poly-D-glutamic acid, poly-L-α-glutamic acid, poly-γ-D-glutamic acid, poly-γ-DL-glutamic acid, and PEG or PHEG derivatives of polyglutamic acid, salts of the above-cited PGAs, and the like. Some aspects of the invention relate to nanoparticles comprising a shell component and a core component, wherein at least a portion of the shell component comprises chitosan and wherein the core component is comprised of a negatively charged compound that is conjugated to chitosan, and a bioactive agent. Some aspects of the invention relate to an oral dose of nanoparticles that effectively enhance intestinal or blood brain paracellular transport comprising a negative component (such as γ-PGA, α-PGA, PGA derivatives, heparin, or alginate) in the core and low molecular weight chitosan, wherein the chitosan dominates on a surface of the nanoparticles with positive charges.

Some aspects of the invention relate to a dose of nanoparticles that effectively enhance intestinal or blood brain paracellular transport comprising a polyanionic component (such as γ-PGA, α-PGA, PGA derivatives, heparin, heparin analogs, low molecular weight heparin, glycosaminoglycans, or alginate) in the core and low molecular weight chitosan in the shell, wherein the chitosan dominates on a surface of the nanoparticles with surface positive charges. In use, firstly, encapsulate the Alzheimer's drug in the chitosan shell nanoparticle as described herein, wherein the nanoparticle is partially crosslinked (optionally) to enhance its biodurability. Then intra-venously inject the nanoparticles, whereby the nanoparticles pass to the brain in blood circulation. The chitosan shell of the nanoparticles adheres to the surface adjacent the tight junction in the brain. Thereafter, the chitosan nanoparticle opens the tight junction, wherein the Alzheimer's drug is released after passing the tight junction for therapeutic treatment. In one embodiment, the nanoparticles are in a spherical shape having a mean particle size of about 50 to 250 nanometers, preferably 150 nanometers to 250 nanometers.

In one example, intravenous administration of the nanoparticles comprising chitosan shell substrate, polyanionic core substrate and at least one bioactive agent for treating Alzheimer's disease in a patient is typically performed with 10 mg to 40 mg of active agent per day over a period of one month to one year. The bioactive agent is selected from the group consisting of donepezile, rivastignine, galantamine, and/or those trade-named products, such as memantine hydrochloride (Axura® by Merz Pharmaceuticals), donepezil hydrochloride (Aricept® by Eisai Co. Ltd.), rivastigrnine tartrate (Exelon® by Novartis), galantamine hydrochloride (Reminyl® by Johnson & Johnson), and tacrine hydrochloride (Cognex® by Parke Davis).

Some aspects of the invention relate to a nanoparticle with a core substrate comprising polyglutamic acids such as water soluble salt of polyglutamic acids (for example, ammonium salt) or metal salts of polyglutamic acid (for example, lithium salt, sodium salt, potassium salt, magnesium salt, and the like). In one embodiment, the form of polyglutamic acid may be selected from the group consisting of poly-α-glutamic acid, poly-L-α-glutamic acid, poly-γ-glutamic acid, poly-D-glutamic acid, poly-γ-D-glutamic acid, poly-γ-DL-glutamic acid, poly-L-glutamic acid (manufactured by Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, Mo.), and PEG or PHEG derivatives of polyglutamic acid. Alginate is generally non-biodegradable; however, it is stipulated that an alginate particle with about 30-50 kDa molecular weight is kidney inert. Heparin with negatively charged side-groups has a general chemical structure as shown below:

Some aspects of the invention relate to the negatively charged glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) as the core substrate of the present nanoparticles. GAGs may be used to complex with a low-molecular-weight chitosan to form drug-carrier nanoparticles. GAGs may also conjugate with the protein drugs as disclosed herein to enhance the bonding efficiency of the core substrate in the nanoparticles. Particularly, the negatively charged core substrate (such as GAGs, heparin, PGA, alginate, and the like) of the nanoparticles of the present invention may conjugate with chondroitin sulfate, hyaluronic acid, PDGF-BB, BSA, EGF, MK, VEGF, KGF, bFGF, aFGF, MK, PTN, etc.

Calceti et al. reported an in vivo evaluation of an oral insulin-PEG delivery system (Eur J Pharma Sci 2004; 22:315-323). Insulin-PEG was formulated into mucoadhesive tablets constituted by the thiolated polymer poly(acrylic acid)-cysteine. The therapeutic agent was sustained released from these tablets within 5 hours. In vivo, by oral administration to diabetic mice, the glucose levels were found to decrease significantly over the time. Further, Krauland et al. reported another oral insulin delivery study of thiolated chitosan-insulin tablets on non-diabetic rats (J. Control. Release 2004, 95:547-555). The delivery tablets utilized 2-Iminothiolane covalently linked to chitosan to form chitosan-TBA (chitosan-4-thiobutylamidine) conjugate. After oral administration of chitosan-TBA-insulin tablets to non-diabetic conscious rats, the blood glucose level decreased significantly for 24 hours; supporting the observation of sustained insulin release of the presently disclosed nanoparticles herein through intestinal absorption. In a further report by Morcol et al. (Int. J. Pharm. 2004; 277:91-97), an oral delivery system comprising calcium phosphate-PEG-insulin-casein particles displays a prolonged hypoglycemic effect after oral administration to diabetic rats.

Pan et al. disclosed chitosan nanoparticles improving the intestinal absorption of insulin in vivo (Int J Pharma 2002; 249:139-147) with insulin-chitosan nanoparticles at a particle size of 250-400 nm, a polydispersity index smaller than 0.1, positively charged and stable. After administering the insulin-chitosan nanoparticles, it was found that the hypoglycemic was prolonged with enhanced pharmacological bioavailability. Their data confirmed our observation as shown in FIGS. 11 and 12; however, the insulin loading capacity and insulin association efficiency of the present invention are substantially higher for the chitosan-insulin nanoparticles with γ-PGA in the core as the core substrate.

EXAMPLE NO. 10 Insulin Nanoparticle Stability

FIG. 13 shows the stability of insulin-loaded nanoparticles of the present invention with an exemplary composition of CS 0.75 mg/ml, γ-PGA 0.167 mg/ml, and insulin 0.083 mg/ml. The prepared insulin-loaded nanoparticles suspended in deionized water are stable during storage up to 40 days. First (in FIG. 13), the insulin content in the nanoparticle storage solution maintains at about a constant level of 9.5%. The nanoparticle stability is further evidenced by the substantially constant particle size at about 200 nm and substantially constant zeta potential of about +28 mV over the period of about 40 days. It is contemplated that the insulin-containing nanoparticles of the present invention would further maintain their biostability when formulated in a soft gelcap or capsule configuration that further isolates the nanoparticles from environmental effects, such as sunlight, heat, air conditions, and the like. Some aspects of the invention provide a gelcap pill or capsule containing a dosage of insulin nanoparticles effective amount of the insulin to treat or manage the diabetic patients, wherein the stability of the insulin-containing nanoparticles is at least 40 days, preferably more than 6 months, and most preferably more than a couple of years.

By “effective amount of the insulin”, it is meant that a sufficient amount of insulin will be present in the dose to provide for a desired therapeutic, prophylatic, or other biological effect when the compositions are administered to a host in the single dosage forms. The capsule of the present invention may preferably comprise two-part telescoping gelatin capsules. Basically, the capsules are made in two parts by dipping metal rods in molten gelatin solution. The capsules are supplied as closed units to the pharmaceutical manufacturer. Before use, the two halves are separated, the capsule is filled with powder (either by placing a compressed slug of powder into one half of the capsule, or by filling one half of the capsule with loose powder) and the other half of the capsule is pressed on. The advantage of inserting a slug of compressed powder is that control of weight variation is better. The capsules may be enterically coated before filling the powder or after filling the powder and securing both parts together.

Thus, for convenient and effective oral administration, pharmaceutically effective amounts of the nanoparticles of this invention can be tabletted with one or more excipient, encased in capsules such as gel capsules, and suspended in a liquid solution and the like. The nanoparticles can be suspended in a deionized solution or the like for parenteral administration. The nanoparticles may be formed into a packed mass for ingestion by conventional techniques. For instance, the nanoparticles may be encapsulated as a “hard-filled capsule” or a “soft-elastic capsule” using known encapsulating procedures and materials. The encapsulating material should be highly soluble in gastric fluid so that the particles are rapidly dispersed in the stomach after the capsule is ingested. Each unit dose, whether capsule or tablet, will preferably contain nanoparticles of a suitable size and quantity that provides pharmaceutically effective amounts of the nanoparticles. The applicable shapes and sizes of capsules may include round, oval, oblong, tube or suppository shape with sizes from 0.75 mm to 80 mm or larger. The volume of the capsules can be from 0.05 cc to more than 5 cc. In one embodiment, the interior of capsules is treated to be hydrophobic or lipophilic.

EXAMPLE NO. 11 In Vitro Insulin Release Study

FIG. 14 show a representative protein drug (for example, insulin) release profile in a pH-adjusted solution for pH-sensitivity study with an exemplary composition of CS 0.75 mg/ml, γ-PGA 0.167 mg/ml, and insulin 0.083 mg/ml in nanoparticles. In one embodiment, the exemplary composition may include each component at a concentration range of ±10% as follows: CS 0.75 mg/ml (a concentration range of 0.67 to 0.83 mg/ml), γ-PGA 0.167 mg/ml (a concentration range of 0.150 to 0.184 mg/ml), and insulin 0.083 mg/ml (a concentration range of 0.075 to 0.091 mg/ml). First, solution of the insulin-loaded nanoparticles was adjusted to pH 2.5 to simulate the gastric environment in a DISTEK-2230A container at 37° C. and 100 rpm. Samples (n=5) were taken at a pre-determined particular time interval and the particle-free solution was obtained by centrifuging at 22,000 rpm for 30 minutes to analyze the free or released insulin in solution by HPLC. Until the free insulin content in the sample solution approaches about constant of 26% (shown in FIG. 14), the pH was adjusted to 6.6 to simulate the entrance portion of the intestine. The net released insulin during this particular time interval is about (from 26% to 33%) 7%. In other words, the nanoparticles are quite stable (evidenced by minimal measurable insulin in solution) for both the pH 2.5 and pH 6.6 regions. To further simulate the exit portion of the intestine, the insulin-containing nanoparticle solution is adjusted to pH 7.4. The remaining insulin (about 67%) is released from the nanoparticles. As discussed above, the insulin in nanoparticles would be more effective to penetrate the intestine wall in paracellular transport mode than the free insulin because of the nanoparticles of the present invention with chitosan at the outer surface (preferential mucosal adhesion on the intestinal wall) and positive charge (enhancing paracellular tight junction transport).

EXAMPLE NO. 12 In Vivo Study with Insulin-Loaded Fluorescence-Labeled Nanoparticles

In the in vivo study, rats were injected with streptozotocin (STZ 75 mg/kg intraperitoneal) in 0.01M citrate buffer (pH 4.3) to induce diabetes rats. The blood from the rat's tail was analyzed with a commercially available glucometer for blood glucose. The blood glucose level on Wistar male rats at no fasting (n=5) is measured at 107.2±8.1 mg/dL for normal rats while the blood glucose level is at 469.7±34.2 mg/dL for diabetic rats. In the animal study, diabetic rats were fasting for 12 hours and subjected to four different conditions: (a) oral deionized water (DI) administration; (b) oral insulin administration at 30 U/kg; (c) oral insulin-loaded nanoparticles administration at 30 U/kg; and (d) subcutaneous (SC) insulin injection at 5 U/kg as positive control. The blood glucose concentration from rat's tail was measured over the time in the study.

FIG. 15 shows glucose change (hypoglycemic index) versus time of the in vivo animal study (n=5). The glucose change as a percentage of base lines for both oral DI administration and oral insulin administration over a time interval of 8 hours appears relatively constant within the experimental measurement error range. It is illustrative that substantially all insulin from the oral administration route has been decomposed in rat stomach. As anticipated, the glucose decrease for the SC insulin injection route appears in rat blood in the very early time interval and starts to taper off after 3 hours in this exemplary study. The most important observation of the study comes from the oral administration route with insulin-loaded nanoparticles.

The blood glucose begins to decrease from the base line at about 2 hours after administration and sustains at a lower glucose level at more than 8 hours into study. It implies that the current insulin-loaded nanoparticles may modulate the glucose level in animals in a sustained or prolonged effective mode. Some aspects of the invention provide a method of treating diabetes of a patient comprising orally administering insulin-containing nanoparticles with a dosage effective amount of the insulin to treat the diabetes, wherein at least a portion of the nanoparticles comprises a positively charged shell substrate and a negatively charged core substrate. In one embodiment, the dosage effective amount of the insulin to treat the diabetes comprises an insulin amount of between about 15 units to 45 units per kilogram body weight of the patient, preferably 20 to 40 units, and most preferably at about 25 to 35 units insulin per kilogram body weight.

Some aspects of the invention relate to a novel nanoparticle system that is composed of a low-MW CS and γ-PGA with CS dominated on the surfaces being configured to effectively open the tight junctions between Caco-2 cell monolayers. The surface of the nanoparticles is characterized with a positive surface charge. In one embodiment, the nanoparticles of the invention enables effective intestinal delivery for bioactive agent, including peptide, polypeptide, protein drugs, other large hydrophilic molecules, and the like. Such polypeptide drugs can be any natural or synthetic polypeptide that may be orally administered to a human patient.

Exemplary drugs include, but are not limited to, insulin; growth factors, such as epidermal growth factor (EGF), insulin-like growth factor (IGF), transforming growth factor (TGF), nerve growth factor (NGF), platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), bone morphogenic protein (BMP), fibroblast growth factor and the like; somatostatin; somatotropin; somatropin; somatrem; calcitonin; parathyroid hormone; colony stimulating factors (CSF); clotting factors; tumor necrosis factors: interferons; interleukins; gastrointestinal peptides, such as vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), cholecytokinin (CCK), gastrin, secretin, and the like; erythropoietins; growth hormone and GRF; vasopressins; octreotide; pancreatic enzymes; dismutases such as superoxide dismutase; thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH); thyroid stimulating hormone; luteinizing hormone; LHRH; GHRH; tissue plasminogen activators; macrophage activator; chorionic gonadotropin; heparin; atrial natriuretic peptide; hemoglobin; retroviral vectors; relaxin; cyclosporin; oxytocin; vaccines; monoclonal antibodies; and the like; and analogs and derivatives of these compounds.

The bioactive agent of the present invention may also be selected from group consisting of oxytocin, vasopressin, adrenocorticotrophic hormone, prolactin, luliberin or luteinising hormone releasing hormone, growth hormone, growth hormone releasing factor, somatostatin, glucagon, interferon, gastrin, tetragastrin, pentagastrin, urogastroine, secretin, calcitonin, enkephalins, endorphins, angiotensins, renin, bradykinin, bacitracins, polymixins, colistins, tyrocidin, gramicidines, and synthetic analogues, modifications and pharmacologically active fragments thereof, monoclonal antibodies and soluble vaccines.

In another embodiment, the nanoparticles of the invention increase the absorption of bioactive agents across the blood brain barrier and/or the gastrointestinal barrier. In still another embodiment, the nanoparticles with chitosan at an outer layer and surface positive charge serve as an enhancer in enhancing paracellular drug (bioactive agent) transport of an administered bioactive agent when the bioactive agent and nanoparticles are orally administrated in a two-component system, or orally administered substantially simultaneously.

EXAMPLE NO. 13 Paracellular Transport and Enhancers

Chitosan and its derivatives may function as intestinal absorption enhancers (that is, paracellular transport enhancers). Chitosan, when protonated at an acidic pH, is able to increase the paracellular permeability of peptide drugs across mucosal epithelia. Some aspects of the invention provide co-administration of nanoparticles of the present invention and at least one paracellular transport enhancer (in non-nanoparticle form or nanoparticle form). In one embodiment, the nanoparticles can be formulated by co-encapsulation of the at least one paracellular transport enhancer and at least one bioactive agent, optionally with other components. The enhancer may be selected from the group consisting of Ca²⁺ chelators, bile salts, anionic surfactants, medium-chain fatty acids, phosphate esters, and chitosan or chitosan derivatives. In one embodiment, the nanoparticles of the present invention comprises a positively charged shell substrate and a negatively charged core substrate, for example, nanoparticles composed of γ-PGA and chitosan that is characterized with a substantially positive surface charge.

In some embodiment, the nanoparticles of the present invention and the at least one paracellular transport enhancer are encapsulated in a soft gel, pill, or enteric coated capsule. The enhancers and the nanoparticles would arrive at the tight junction about the same time for enhancing opening the tight junction. In another embodiment, the at least one paracellular transport enhancer is co-enclosed within the shell of the nanoparticles of the present invention. Therefore, some broken nanoparticles would release enhancers to assist the nanoparticles to open the tight junctions of the epithelial layers. In an alternate embodiment, the at least one enhancer is enclosed within a second nanoparticle having positive surface charges, particularly a chitosan type nanoparticle. When the drug-containing first nanoparticles of the present invention are co-administered with the above-identified second nanoparticles orally, the enhancers within the second nanoparticles are released in the intestinal tract to assist the drug-containing first nanoparticles to open and pass the tight junction.

EXAMPLE NO. 14 Nanoparticles with Exenatide

Exenatide is a member of the class of drugs known as incretin mimetics. Exenatide and pramlintide belong to non-insulin injectables for treatment of diabetes. Exenatide has a molecular formula of C₁₈₄H₂₈₂N₅₀O₆₀S with a molecular mass of about 4186.6 g/mol and an CAS no. 141732-76-5. Exenatide is suitable to be incorporated in a core portion of chitosan-shelled nanoparticles, wherein the core portion may include positively charged chitosan and negatively charged core substrate, such as γ-PGA or α-PGA, optionally with additional TPP and MgSO₄ in the core portion. In preparation, nanoparticles were obtained upon addition of a mixture of γ-PGA plus exenatide aqueous solution (pH 7.4, 2 ml), using a pipette (0.5-5 ml, PLASTIBRAND®, BrandTech Scientific Inc., Germany), into a low-MW CS aqueous solution (pH 6.0, 10 ml) at concentrations higher than 0.10% by w/v under magnetic stirring at room temperature to ensure positive surface charge. Nanoparticles were collected by ultracentrifugation at 38,000 rpm for 1 hour. Exenatide is wholly or substantially totally encapsulated in the core portion of the nanoparticles. Supernatants were discarded and nanoparticles were resuspended in deionized water as the solution products. In one embodiment, it may further be encapsulated in capsules. In one embodiment, the interior surface of the capsule is treated to be lipophilic or hydrophobic. In another embodiment, the exterior surface of the capsule is enteric-coated. In a preferred embodiment, the nanoparticles are further freeze-dried, optionally being mixed with trehalose or with hexan-1,2,3,4,5,6-hexyl in a freeze-drying process.

Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) is derived from the transcription product of the proglucagon gene. The major source of GLP-1 in the body is the intestinal L cell that secretes GLP-1 as a gut hormone. The biologically active forms of GLP-1 are GLP-1-(7-37) and GLP-1-(7-36)NH2. GLP-1 secretion by L cells is dependent on the presence of nutrients in the lumen of the small intestine. The secretagogues (agents that cause or stimulate secretion) of this hormone include major nutrients like carbohydrate, protein and lipid. Once in the circulation, GLP-1 has a half-life of less than 2 minutes, due to rapid degradation by the enzyme dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4). Commercial GLP-1 ELISA kits are generally available for GLP-1 assay.

Exenatide (marketed as Byetta) is the first of a new class of medications (incretin mimetics) approved for the treatment of type 2 diabetes. It is manufactured and marketed by Amylin Pharmaceuticals and Eli Lilly and Company. Exenatide is a synthetic version of exendin-4, a hormone in the saliva of the Gila monster, a lizard native to several Southwestern American states. It displays properties similar to human GLP-1. Exenatide is a 39-amino-acid peptide that mimics the GLP-1 incretin, an insulin secretagogue with glucoregulatory effects. While it may lower blood glucose levels on its own, it can also be combined with other medications such as pioglitazone, metformin, sulfonylureas, and/or insulin (not FDA approved yet) to improve glucose control. The approved use of exenatide is with either sulfonylureas, metformin or thiazolinediones. The medication is injected subcutaneously twice per day using a pre-filled pen device.

Typical human responses to exenatide include improvements in the initial rapid release of endogenous insulin, suppression of pancreatic glucagon release, delayed gastric emptying, and reduced appetite—all of which function to lower blood glucose. Whereas some other classes of diabetes drugs such as sulfonylureas, thiazolinediones, and insulin are often associated with weight gain, Byetta often is associated with significant weight loss. Unlike sulfonylureas and meglitinides, exenatide increases insulin synthesis and secretion in the presence of glucose only, lessening the risk of hypoglycemia. Byetta is also being used by some physicians to treat insulin resistance.

EXAMPLE NO. 15 Nanoparticles with Pramlintide

Pramlintide is a synthetic amylin analogue (marketed as Symlin). Amylin is a natural, pancreatic islet peptide that is normally secreted with insulin in response to meals. It has several beneficial effects on glucose homeostasis: suppression of glucagon secretion, delaying of gastric emptying, and the promotion of satiety. It is currently given before meals, in a separate subcutaneous injection but usually in conjunction with insulin. Pramlintide has a molecular formula of C₁₇₁H₂₆₉N₅₁O₅₃S₂ with a molecular mass of about 3951.4 g/mol and an CAS no. 151126-32-8. Pramlintide (positively charged) is currently delivered as an acetate salt. Pramlintide is suitable to be incorporated in a core portion of a chitosan-shelled nanoparticles, wherein the core portion may include positively charged chitosan and negatively charged core substrate, such as γ-PGA or α-PGA, optionally with additional TPP and MgSO₄ in the core portion. In other words, pramlintide may replace at least a portion of positively charged chitosan in the core portion by interacting with negatively core substrate, such as PGA, heparin or the like. In preparation, nanoparticles were obtained upon addition of a mixture of γ-PGA plus ppramlintide aqueous solution (pH 7.4, 2 ml), using a pipette (0.5-5 ml, PLASTIBRAND®, BrandTech Scientific Inc., Germany), into a low-MW CS aqueous solution (pH 6.0, 10 ml) at concentrations higher than 0.10% by w/v under magnetic stirring at room temperature to ensure positive surface charge. Nanoparticles were collected by ultracentrifugation at 38,000 rpm for 1 hour. Pramlintide is wholly or substantially totally encapsulated in the core portion of the nanoparticles. Supernatants were discarded and nanoparticles were resuspended in deionized water as the solution products. In one embodiment, it may further be encapsulated in capsules. In one embodiment, the interior surface of the capsule is treated to be lipophilic or hydrophobic. In another embodiment, the exterior surface of the capsule is enteric-coated. In a preferred embodiment, the nanoparticles are further freeze-dried, optionally being mixed with trehalose or with hexan-1,2,3,4,5,6-hexyl in a freeze-drying process.

Pramlintide is an analogue of amylin, a small peptide hormone that is released into the bloodstream by the β-cells of the pancreas along with insulin, after a meal. Like insulin, amylin is deficient in individuals with diabetes. By augmenting endogenous amylin, pramlintide aids in the absorption of glucose by slowing gastric emptying, promoting satiety via hypothalamic receptors (different receptors than for GLP-1), and inhibiting inappropriate secretion of glucagon, a catabolic hormone that opposes the effects of insulin and amylin.

EXAMPLE NO. 16 Nanoparticles with Complexed Calcitonin

Calcitonin is a protein drug that serves therapeutically as calcium regulators for treating osteoporosis (J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 1994; 46:547-552). Calcitonin has a molecular formula of C₁₄₅H₂₄₀N₄₄O₄₈S₂ with a molecular weight of about 3431.9 and an isoelectric point of 8.7. The net charge for calcitonin at pH7.4 is positive that is suitable to complex or conjugate with negatively charged core substrate, such as γ-PGA or α-PGA. In preparation, nanoparticles were obtained upon addition of a mixture of γ-PGA plus calcitonin aqueous solution (pH 7.4, 2 ml), using a pipette (0.5-5 ml, PLASTIBRAND®, BrandTech Scientific Inc., Germany), into a low-MW CS aqueous solution (pH 6.0, 10 ml) at concentrations higher than 0.10% by w/v under magnetic stirring at room temperature to ensure positive surface charge. Nanoparticles were collected by ultracentrifugation at 38,000 rpm for 1 hour. Calcitonin is wholly or substantially totally encapsulated in the core portion of the nanoparticles. Supernatants were discarded and nanoparticles were resuspended in deionized water as the solution products, further encapsulated in capsules or further treated with an enteric coating.

EXAMPLE NO. 17 Nanoparticles with Conjugated Vancomycin

Vancomycin is a protein drug that serves therapeutically as antibiotic against bacterial pathogens. Vancomycin has a molecular formula of C₆₆H₇₅N₉O₂₄ with a molecular weight of about 1485.7 and an isoelectric point of 5.0. The net charge for vancomycin at pH7.4 is negative that is suitable to complex or conjugate with a portion of negatively charged shell substrate, such as chitosan. In preparation, nanoparticles were obtained upon addition of a mixture of γ-PGA plus vancomycin aqueous solution (pH 7.4, 2 ml), using a pipette (0.5-5 ml, PLASTIBRAND®, BrandTech Scientific Inc., Germany), into a low-MW CS aqueous solution (pH 6.0, 10 ml) with excess concentrations under magnetic stirring at room temperature, wherein CS concentration is provided sufficiently to conjugate vancomycin, to counterbalance γ-PGA, and exhibit positive surface charge for the nanoparticles. Nanoparticles were collected by ultracentrifugation at 38,000 rpm for 1 hour. Vancomycin is wholly or substantially totally encapsulated in the core portion of the nanoparticles. Supernatants were discarded and nanoparticles were resuspended in deionized water as the solution products, further encapsulated in capsules or further treated with an enteric coating on capsules.

Some aspects of the invention relate to a method of enhancing intestinal or blood brain paracellular transport of bioactive agents configured and adapted for delivering at least one bioactive agent in a patient comprising administering nanoparticles composed of γ-PGA and chitosan, wherein the nanoparticles are loaded with a therapeutically effective amount or dose of the at least one bioactive agent. The nanoparticle of the present invention is an effective intestinal delivery system for peptide and protein drugs and other large hydrophilic molecules. In a further embodiment, the bioactive agent is selected from the group consisting of proteins, peptides, nucleosides, nucleotides, antiviral agents, antineoplastic agents, antibiotics, and anti-inflammatory drugs. In a further embodiment, the bioactive agent is selected from the group consisting of calcitonin, cyclosporin, insulin, oxytocin, tyrosine, enkephalin, tyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH), follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), vasopressin and vasopressin analogs, catalase, superoxide dismutase, interleukin-II (IL2), interferon, colony stimulating factor (CSF), tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and melanocyte-stimulating hormone. In a further embodiment, the bioactive agent is an Alzheimer antagonist.

EXAMPLE NO. 18 Nanoparticles with Heparin Core Substrate

Heparin is a negatively charged drug that serves therapeutically as anti-coagulant. Heparin is generally administered by intravenous injection. Some aspects of the invention relate to heparin nanoparticles for oral administration or subcutaneous administration. In a further embodiment, heparin serves as at least a portion of the core substrate with chitosan as shell substrate, wherein heparin conjugate at least one bioactive agent as disclosed herein. In preparation, nanoparticles were obtained upon addition of heparin Leo aqueous solution (2 ml), using a pipette (0.5-5 ml, PLASTIBRAND®, BrandTech Scientific Inc., Germany), into a low-MW CS aqueous solution (pH 6.0, 10 ml) with excess concentrations under magnetic stirring at room temperature. Nanoparticles were collected by ultracentrifugation at 38,000 rpm for 1 hour. Heparin is wholly or substantially totally encapsulated in the core portion of the nanoparticles. Table 4 shows the conditions of solution preparation and the average nanoparticle size.

TABLE 4 Heparin conc. Conditions @2 ml Chitosan conc. @10 ml Particle size (nm) A 200 iu/ml 0.09% 298.2 ± 9.3 B 100 iu/ml 0.09% 229.1 ± 4.5 C  50 iu/ml 0.09% 168.6 ± 1.7 D  25 iu/ml 0.09% 140.1 ± 2.3

To evaluate the pH stability of the heparin-containing nanoparticles from Example no. 18, the nanoparticles from Condition D in Table 4 are subjected to various pH for 2 hours (sample size=7). Table 5 shows the average size, size distribution (polydispersity index: PI) and zeta potential (Zeta) of the nanoparticles at the end of 2 hours under various pH environments. The data shows the nanoparticles are relatively stable. In one embodiment, the nanoparticles of the present invention may include heparin, heparin sulfate, small molecular weight heparin, and heparin derivatives.

TABLE 5 pH 1.5 2.6 6.6 7.4 Deionized water @5.9 Size (nm) 150 ± 9  160 ± 12  153 ± 2  154 ± 4  147 ± 5  PI 0.54 ± 0.03 0.50 ± 0.04 0.08 ± 0.02 0.32 ± 0.03 0.37 ± 0.02 Zeta (+) 15 ± 2  33 ± 6   15 ± 0.1  11 ± 0.2 18 ± 4 

In a further embodiment, a growth factor such as bFGF with pharmaceutically effective amount is added to heparin Leo aqueous solution before the pipetting step in Example No. 17. In our laboratory, growth factors and proteins with pharmaceutically effective amount have been successfully conjugated with heparin to form nanoparticles of the present invention with chitosan as the shell substrate, wherein the growth factor is selected from the group consisting of Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF), Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor 2 (VEGF2), basic Fibroblast Growth Factor (bFGF), Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor 121 (VEGF121), Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor 165 (VEGF165), Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor 189 (VEGF189), Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor 206 (VEGF206), Platelet Derived Growth Factor (PDGF), Platelet Derived Angiogenesis Factor (PDAF), Transforming Growth Factor-β (TGF-β), Transforming Growth Factor-α (TGF-α), Platelet Derived Epidermal Growth Factor (PDEGF), Platelet Derived Wound Healing Formula (PDWHF), epidermal growth factor, insulin-like growth factor, acidic Fibroblast Growth Factor (aFGF), human growth factor, and combinations thereof; and the protein is selected from the group consisting of haemagglutinin (HBHA), Pleiotrophin, buffalo seminal plasma proteins, and combinations thereof.

In a co-pending application, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/916,170 filed Aug. 11, 2004, it is disclosed that a biomaterial with free amino groups of lysine, hydroxylysine, or arginine residues within biologic tissues is crosslinkable with genipin, a crosslinker (Biomaterials 1999; 20: 1759-72). It is also disclosed that the crosslinkable biomaterial may be crosslinked with a crosslinking agent or with light, such as ultraviolet irradiation, wherein the crosslinkable biomaterial may be selected from the group consisting of collagen, gelatin, elastin, chitosan, NOCC(N, O, carboxylmethyl chitosan), fibrin glue, biological sealant, and the like. Further, it is disclosed that a crosslinking agent may be selected from the group consisting of genipin, its derivatives, analog (for example, aglycon geniposidic acid), stereoisomers and mixtures thereof. In one embodiment, the crosslinking agent may further be selected from the group consisting of epoxy compounds, dialdehyde starch, glutaraldehyde, formaldehyde, dimethyl suberimidate, carbodiimides, succinimidyls, diisocyanates, acyl azide, reuterin, ultraviolet irradiation, dehydrothermal treatment, tris(hydroxymethyl)phosphine, ascorbate-copper, glucose-lysine and photo-oxidizers, and the like.

In one embodiment, it is disclosed that loading drug onto a chitosan-containing biological material crosslinked with genipin or other crosslinking agent may be used as biocompatible drug carriers for drug slow-release or sustained release. Several biocompatible plastic polymers or synthetic polymers have one or more amine group in their chemical structures, for example poly(amides) or poly(ester amides). The amine group may become reactive toward a crosslinking agent, such as glutaraldehyde, genipin or epoxy compounds of the present invention. In one embodiment, the nanoparticles comprised of crosslinkable biomaterial is crosslinked, for example up to about 50% degree or more of crosslinking, preferably about 1 to about 20% degree of crosslinking of the crosslinkable components of the biomaterial, enabling sustained biodegradation of the biomaterial and/or sustained drug release.

By modifying the chitosan structure to alter its charge characteristics, such as grafting the chitosan with methyl, N-trimethyl, alkyl (for example, ethyl, propyl, butyl, isobutyl, etc.), polyethylene glycol (PEG), or heparin (including low molecular weight heparin, regular molecular weight heparin, and genetically modified heparin), the surface charge density (zeta potential) of the CS-γ PGA nanoparticles may become more pH resistant or hydrophilic. In one embodiment, the chitosan is grafted with polyacrylic acid.

By way of illustration, trimethyl chitosan chloride might be used in formulating the CS-γ PGA nanoparticles for maintaining its spherical biostability at a pH lower than pH 2.5, preferably at a pH as low as 1.0. Some aspects of the invention provide a drug-loaded chitosan-containing biological material crosslinked with genipin or other crosslinking agent as a biocompatible drug carrier for enhancing biostability at a pH lower than pH 2.5, preferably within at a pH as low as 1.0.

Freeze-Dried Nanoparticles

A pharmaceutical composition of nanoparticles of the present invention may comprise a first component of at least one bioactive agent, a second component of chitosan (including regular molecular weight and low molecular weight chitosan), and a third component that is negatively charged. In one embodiment, the second component dominates on a surface of the nanoparticle. In another embodiment, the chitosan is N-trimethyl chitosan. In still another embodiment, the low molecular weight chitosan has a molecular weight lower than that of a regular molecular weight chitosan. The nanoparticles may further comprise tripolyphosphate and magnesium sulfate. For example, a first solution of (2 ml 0.1% γ-PGA aqueous solution @pH 7.4±0.05% Insulin +0.1% Tripolyphosphate (TPP)+0.2% MgSO4) is added to a base solution (10 ml 0.12% chitosan aqueous solution @pH 6.0) as illustrated in Example no. 4 under magnetic stirring at room temperature. Nanoparticles were collected by ultracentrifugation at 38,000 rpm for 1 hour. The bioactive agent, the third component, tripolyphosphate and magnesium sulfate are wholly or substantially totally encapsulated in the core portion of the nanoparticles. Supernatants were discarded and nanoparticles were resuspended in deionized water for freeze-drying preparation. Other operating conditions or other bioactive agent (such as protein, peptide, siRNA, growth factor, the one defined and disclosed herein, and the like) may also apply.

Several conventional coating compounds that form a protective layer on particles are used to physically coat or mix with the nanoparticles before a freeze-drying process. The coating compounds may include trehalose, mannitol, glycerol, and the like. Trehalose, also known as mycose, is an alpha-linked (disaccharide) sugar found extensively but not abundantly in nature. It can be synthesized by fungi, plants and invertebrate animals. It is implicated in anhydrobiosis—the ability of plants and animals to withstand prolonged periods of desiccation. The sugar is thought to form a gel phase as cells dehydrate, which prevents disruption of internal cell organelles by effectively splinting them in position. Rehydration then allows normal cellular activity to resume without the major, generally lethal damage, which would normally follow a dehydration/rehydration cycle. Trehalose has the added advantage of being an antioxidant.

Trehaloze has a chemical formula as C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁.2H₂O. It is listed as CAS no. 99-20-7 and PubChem 7427. The molecular structure for trehalose is shown below.

Trehalose was first isolated from ergot of rye. Trehalose is a non-reducing sugar formed from two glucose units joined by a 1-1 alpha bond giving it the name of α-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→1)-α-D-glucopyranoside. The bonding makes trehalose very resistant to acid hydrolysis, and therefore stable in solution at high temperatures even under acidic conditions. The bonding also keeps non-reducing sugars in closed-ring form, such that the aldehyde or ketone end-groups do not bind to the lysine or arginine residues of proteins (a process called glycation). Trehalose has about 45% the sweetness of sucrose. Trehalose is less soluble than sucrose, except at high temperatures (>80° C.). Trehalose forms a rhomboid crystal as the dihydrate, and has 90% of the calorific content of sucrose in that form. Anhydrous forms of trehalose readily regain moisture to form the dihydrate. Trehalose has also been used in at least one biopharmaceutical formulation, the monoclonal antibody trastuzumab, marketed as Herceptin. It has a solubility of 68.9 g/100 g H₂O at 20° C.

Mannitol or hexan-1,2,3,4,5,6-hexyl (C₆H₈(OH)₆) is an osmotic diuretic agent and a weak renal vasodilator. Chemically, mannitol is a sugar alcohol, or a polyol; it is similar to xylitol or sorbitol. However, mannitol has a tendency to lose a hydrogen ion in aqueous solutions, which causes the solution to become acidic. For this, it is not uncommon to add a substance to adjust its pH, such as sodium bicarbonate. Mannitol has a chemical formula as C₆H₁₄O₆. It is listed as CAS no. 69-65-8 and PubChem 453. The molecular structure for mannitol is shown below.

Glycerol is a chemical compound with the formula HOCH₂CH(OH)CH₂OH. This colorless, odorless, viscous liquid is widely used in pharmaceutical formulations. Also commonly called glycerin or glycerine, it is a sugar alcohol and fittingly is sweet-tasting and of low toxicity. Glycerol has three hydrophilic alcoholic hydroxyl groups that are responsible for its solubility in water and its hygroscopic nature. Glycerol has a chemical formula as C₃H₅(OH)₃. It is listed as CAS no. 56-81-5. The molecular structure for glycerol is shown below.

EXAMPLE NO. 19 Freeze-Drying Process for Nanoparticles

Nanoparticles (at 2.5% concentration) were mixed with solution from four types of liquid at a 1:1 volume ratio for about 30 minutes until fully dispersed. The mixed particle-liquid was then freeze-dried under a lyophilization condition, for example, at −80° C. and <25 mmHg pressure for about 6 hours. The parameters in a selected lyophilization condition may vary slightly from the aforementioned numbers. The four types of liquid used in the experiment include: (A) DI water; (B) trehalose; (C) mannitol; and (D) glycerol, whereas the concentration of the liquid (A) to liquid (C) in the solution was set at 2.5%, 5% and/or 10%. After a freeze-drying process, the mixed particle-liquid was rehydrated with DI water at a 1:5 volume ratio to assess the integrity of nanoparticles in each type of liquid. The results are shown in Table 6. By comparing the particle size, polydispersity index and zeta-potential data, only the nanoparticles from the freeze-dried particle-trehalose runs (at 2.5%, 5%, and 10% concentration level) show comparable properties as compared to those of the before-lyophilization nanoparticles. Under the same data analysis, the nanoparticles from the freeze-dried particle-mannitol runs (at 2.5%, and 5% concentration level) show somewhat comparable properties as compared to those of the before-lyophilization nanoparticles.

TABLE 6 Properties of nanoparticles before and after an exemplary freeze-drying process. A: DI Water A: DI water + NPs (volume 1:1), B: Trehalose NPS solution freeze-dried B: Trehalose + NPs (volume 1:1), freeze-dried Conc. 2.50% Conc. Conc. 2.50% 5.00% 10.00% Size (nm) 266 Size (nm) 9229.1 Size (nm) 302.4 316.7 318.9 Kcps 352.2 Kcps 465.3 Kcps 363.7 327.7 352.2 PI 0.291 PI 1 PI 0.361 0.311 0.266 Zeta Potential 25.3 Zeta Potential Zeta Potential 25.6 24.6 24.7 C: Mannitol C: Mannitol + NPs D: Glycerol (volume 1:1), freeze-dried D: Glycerol + NPs (volume 1:1), freeze-dried Conc. 2.50% 5.00% Conc. 2.50% 5.00% 10.00% Size (nm) 420.1 487.5 Size (nm) 6449.1 7790.3 1310.5 Kcps 305.4 303.7 Kcps 796.1 356.1 493.3 PI 0.467 0.651 PI 1 1 1 Zeta Potential 24.4 25.3 Zeta Potential

FIG. 16 shows an illustrative mechanism of nanoparticles released from the enteric-coated capsules. FIG. 16(A) shows the phase of nanoparticles in the gastric cavity, wherein the freeze-dried nanoparticles 82 are encapsulated within an initial enteric coating or coated capsule 81. FIG. 16(B) shows a schematic of the nanoparticles during the phase of entering small intestine, wherein the enteric coat and its associated capsule starts to dissolve 83 and a portion of nanoparticles 82 is released from the capsule and contacts fluid. FIG. 16(C) shows the phase of nanoparticles in the intestinal tract, wherein the nanoparticles revert to a wet state having chitosan at its surface. In an alternate embodiment, nanoparticles may be released from alginate-calcium coating. In preparation, nanoparticles are first suspended in a solution that contains calcium chloride, wherein the calcium ions are positively charged. With a pipette, alginate with negatively charged carboxyl groups is slowly added to the calcium chloride solution. Under gentle stirring, the alginate-calcium starts to conjugate, gel, and coat on the nanoparticle surface. In simulated oral administration of the alginate-calcium coated nanoparticles, nanoparticles start to separate from the coating when they enter the small intestines.

EXAMPLE NO. 20 Freeze-Dried Nanoparticles in Animal Evaluation

In the in vivo study, rats as prepared and conditioned according to Example no. 12 were used in this evaluation. In the animal evaluation study, diabetic rats were fasting for 12 hours and subjected to three different conditions: (a) oral deionized water (DI) administration as negative control; (b) oral insulin-loaded lyophilized nanoparticles administration, whereas the nanoparticles have an insulin loading content of 4.4% and an insulin loading efficiency of 48.6% and are loaded in a capsule with surface enteric coating; and (c) subcutaneous (SC) insulin injection at 5 U/kg as positive control. The blood glucose concentration from rat's tail was measured over the time in the study.

FIG. 19 shows glucose change (hypoglycemic index) versus time of the in vivo animal study (n=5). The glucose change as a percentage of base lines for oral DI administration (control) over a time interval of 10 hours appears relatively constant within the experimental measurement error range. As anticipated, the glucose decrease for the SC insulin injection route appears in rat blood in the very early time interval and starts to taper off after 2 hours in this exemplary study and ends at about 6 hours. The most important observation of the study comes from the oral administration route with insulin-loaded lyophilized (namely, freeze-dried) nanoparticles. Nanoparticles of this example have insulin LC at 4.4%, whereas nanoparticles from Example no. 12 had insulin LC at 14.1% in FIG. 15). With the same amount of nanoparticles in both examples, the insulin-feeding ratio of Example no. 20 to Example no. 12 is about 1:3. In other words, the insulin fed to a rat in this study from nanoparticles is about ⅓ of the insulin from nanoparticles fed to rats in Example no. 12.

The blood glucose begins to decrease from the base line at about 3 hours after administration and sustains at a lower glucose level at more than 10 hours into study. It implies that the current insulin-loaded nanoparticles may modulate the glucose level in animals in a sustained or prolonged effective mode. Some aspects of the invention provide a method of treating diabetes of a patient comprising orally administering insulin-containing nanoparticles with a dosage effective amount of the insulin to treat the diabetes, wherein at least a portion of the nanoparticles comprises a positively charged shell substrate and a negatively charged core substrate. In one embodiment, the dosage effective amount of the insulin to treat the diabetes comprises an insulin amount of between about 15 units to 45 units per kilogram body weight of the patient, preferably 20 to 40 units, and most preferably at about 25 to 35 units insulin per kilogram body weight. In one embodiment, the lyophilized nanoparticles may be fed as is to an animal without being loaded in an enterically coated capsule.

It is known that Zn (zinc) is usually added in the biosynthesis and storage of insulin. FIGS. 17 and 18 show a schematic of insulin conjugated with a polyanionic compound (I.e., γ-PGA in this case) via Zn and thus increase its loading efficiency and loading content in the nanoparticles of the present invention. It is further demonstrated that Zn may complex with the histidine and glutamic acid residues in insulin to increase the insulin stability and enhance controlled release capability or sustained therapy. Some aspects of the invention relate to a nanoparticle characterized by enhancing intestinal or brain blood paracellular transport, the nanoparticle comprising a first component of at least one bioactive agent, a second component of low molecular weight chitosan, and a third component that is negatively charged, wherein a stabilizer is added to complex the at least one bioactive agent to the negatively charged third component. In one embodiment, the stabilizer is zinc or calcium.

EXAMPLE NO. 21 Nanoparticles with Enhanced Insulin Loading

In a co-pending application, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/881,185 filed Jul. 26, 2007, entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference, it is disclosed that a novel nanoparticle may comprise a shell substrate of chitosan and a core substrate consisting of at least one bioactive agent, MgSO₄, TPP, and a negatively charged substrate that is neutralized with chitosan in the core. FIG. 20 shows insulin-loaded nanoparticles with a core composition comprised of γ-PGA, MgSO₄, sodium tripolyphosphate (TPP), and insulin. Nanoparticles were obtained upon addition of core component, using a pipette (0.5-5 ml, PLASTIBRAND®, BrandTech Scientific Inc., Germany), into a CS aqueous solution (pH 6.0, 10 ml) at certain concentrations under magnetic stirring at room temperature. Nanoparticles were collected by ultracentrifugation at 38,000 rpm for 1 hour. Supernatants were discarded and nanoparticles were resuspended in deionized water for further studies. In one embodiment, nanoparticles are encapsulated in a gelcap or are lyophilized before being loaded in a gelcap or in a tablet. The sodium tripolyphosphate has a chemical formula of Na₅P₃O₁₀ as shown below:

In the example, the core composition may be varied and evaluated with a preferred composition of 2 ml γ-PGA aqueous solution at pH 7.4 plus insulin, MgSO₄ and TPP, resulting in a ratio of CS:γ-PGA:TPP:MgSO4:insulin=6.0:1.0:1.0:2.0:0.05. Thus, the nanoparticles show characteristics with chitosan shell and a core composition consisted of γ-PGA, MgSO₄, TPP, and insulin and have an average loading efficiency of 72.8% insulin and an average loading content of 21.6% insulin.

In the enhanced drug loading of the present example, there provides two or more distinct ionic crosslink mechanisms. In one embodiment, the nanoparticles of the present invention may have a structure or matrix of interpenetrated ionic-crosslinks (that is, elongate ionic-crosslink chains) including a first ionic-crosslink chain of NH₃ ⁺ of CS with COO⁻ of γ-PGA, a second ionic-crosslink chain of NH₃ ⁺ of CS with SO₄ ²⁻ of MgSO₄, a third ionic-crosslink chain of Mg²⁺ of MgSO₄ with COO⁻ of γ-PGA, and/or a fourth ionic-crosslink chain of Na₃P₃O₁₀ ²⁻ of TPP with NH₃ ⁺ of CS or Mg²⁺ of MgSO₄.

Some aspects of the invention relate to a nanoparticle composition for oral administration with the insulin loading efficiency and content at higher than 45% and 14% (preferably up to about 73% and 22%), respectively. The prepared nanoparticles (NPs) are stable in the range of pH 2.0 to 7.1. This broad range is to maintain the chitosan-shelled nanoparticle transiently stable in most of the intestine region (including duodenum, jejunum, and ileum) for enhanced membrane adsorption and paracellular permeability of active ingredient (for example, insulin, exenatide or pramlintide). Some aspects of the invention provide a chitosan-shelled nanoparticle with a core composition comprised of γ-PGA, MgSO₄, TPP, and at least one bioactive agent, such as insulin, exenatide or pramlintide for treatment of diabetes. In an alternate embodiment, some aspects of the invention provide a chitosan-shelled nanoparticle with a core composition consisted of γ-PGA, MgSO₄, TPP, and at least one bioactive agent. In one embodiment, negatively charged γ-PGA may conveniently be substituted by another negatively charge substrate, such as heparin. In an experiment following the experimental conditions of Example no. 21 by substituting insulin with exenatide, chitosan-shelled nanoparticles with a core composition comprised of γ-PGA, MgSO₄, TPP, and exenatide have been prepared that exhibit similar physical and mechanical properties as compared to the ones with insulin.

FIG. 21 shows an in vivo subcutaneous study using insulin injectables and insulin-containing nanoparticles. The insulin-containing nanoparticles exhibit different pharmacodynamics and/or pharmacokinetics in a sustained releasing manner. Some aspects of the invention relate to a pharmaceutical composition of nanoparticles for subcutaneous or blood vessel administration in a patient, the nanoparticles comprising a shell portion that is dominated by positively charged chitosan, a core portion that contains negatively charged substrate, wherein the negatively charged substrate is at least partially neutralized with a portion of the positively charged chitosan in the core portion, and at least one bioactive agent loaded within the nanoparticles.

Some aspects of the invention relate to a method of delivering a bioactive agent to blood circulation in a patient, comprising: (a) providing nanoparticles according to a preferred embodiment of the pharmaceutical composition of the present invention, wherein the nanoparticles are formed via a simple and mild ionic-gelation method; (b) administering the nanoparticles orally toward the intestine of the patient via stomach; (c) urging the nanoparticles to be absorbed onto a surface of an epithelial membrane of the intestine via muco-adhesive chitosan-shelled nanoparticles; (d) permeating bioactive agent to pass through an epithelial barrier of the intestine; and (e) releasing the bioactive agent into the blood circulation. In one embodiment, the bioactive agent is selected from the group consisting of exenatide, pramlintide, insulin, insulin analog, and combinations thereof. In another embodiment, the bioactive agent permeates through the tight junctions of the epithelial membrane when chitosan-shelled nanoparticles break up and release the bioactive agent at vicinity of the tight junctions.

Some aspects of the invention relate to a method for inducing a redistribution of tight junction's ZO-1 protein, leading to translocation of the ZO-1 protein to cytoskeleton that accompanies increased paracellular transport in a patient, the method comprising administering into the patient bioactive nanoparticles with a dosage effective to induce the redistribution, wherein the bioactive nanoparticles comprise a shell substrate of chitosan and a core substrate that comprises poly(glutamic acid) and the bioactive agent that is selected from the group consisting of exenatide, pramlintide, insulin, insulin analog, and combinations thereof.

Although the present invention has been described with reference to specific details of certain embodiments thereof, it is not intended that such details should be regarded as limitations upon the scope of the invention except as and to the extent that they are included in the accompanying claims. Many modifications and variations are possible in light of the above disclosure. 

1. A pharmaceutical composition of nanoparticles for oral administration in a patient, said nanoparticles comprising a shell portion that is dominated by positively charged chitosan, a core portion that consists of one negatively charged substrate, wherein said substrate is PGA, wherein said negatively charged substrate is at least partially neutralized with a portion of said positively charged chitosan in the core portion, and at least one bioactive agent loaded within said nanoparticles, wherein said at least one bioactive agent comprises incretin mimetics or pramlintide.
 2. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 1, wherein said incretin mimetics is exenatide.
 3. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 1, wherein said PGA is selected from the group consisting of γ-PGA, α-PGA, water soluble salts of PGA, and metal salts of PGA.
 4. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 1, wherein said nanoparticles are formed via a simple and mild ionic-gelation method.
 5. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 1, wherein a surface of said nanoparticles is characterized with a positive surface charge.
 6. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 1, wherein said nanoparticles are encapsulated in a capsule.
 7. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 6, wherein an exterior surface of said capsule is treated with an enteric coating.
 8. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 6, wherein an interior surface of said capsule is treated with a hydrophobic coating.
 9. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 1, wherein said nanoparticles have a mean particle size between about 50 and 400 nanometers.
 10. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 1, wherein at least a portion of said nanoparticles is crosslinked.
 11. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 1, wherein said chitosan has a molecular weight about 80 kDa or less.
 12. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 1, wherein said chitosan is trimethyl chitosan or chitosan derivatives.
 13. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 1, wherein said bioactive agent further comprises insulin or insulin analog.
 14. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 1, wherein said nanoparticles are freeze-dried.
 15. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 1, wherein said at least one bioactive agent further comprises sulfonylureas, metformin or thiazolinediones.
 16. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 6, wherein at least one permeation enhancer is co-encapsulated with said nanoparticles.
 17. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 16, wherein said at least one permeation enhancer is selected from the group consisting of Ca²⁺ chelators, bile salts, anionic surfactants, medium-chain fatty acids, phosphate esters, chitosan, and chitosan derivatives. 